Key Terms in Argumentation and Rhetoric

Abstract language

language expressing a quality apart from a specific object or event; opposite of concrete language

Ex. Love, courage...

Ad hominem

"against the man"; attacking the arguer rather than the argument or issue

Ad populum

"to the people"; playing on the prejudices of the audience

Ex. "But officer, I don't deserve a ticket; everyone goes this speed. If I went any slower, I wouldn't be going with the stream of traffic."

Analogy

a comparison in which a thing is inferred to be similar to another thing in a certain way because it is similar to the thing in other ways
Ex: Life is like a box of chocolates – you never know what you're going to get.

Appeal to tradition

a proposal that something should continue because it has traditionally existed or been done that way

Appeal to tradition example

It is the way it has always been done

Argument

a process of reasoning and advancing proof about issues on which conflicting views may be held; also, a statement or statements providing support for a claim

Audience

those who will hear an argument; more generally, those to whom a communication is addressed

Authoritative warrant

a warrant based on the credibility or trustworthiness of the source

Ex. Claim: Cigarette smoking is harmful. Support: The surgeon general has determined that cigarette smoking is hazardous to your health.

Authority

a respectable, reliable source of evidence

Backing

the assurances upon which a warrant or assumption is based
EX: Needle exchange programs should be abolished [claim] because they only cause more people to use drugs [reason/data

Begging the question

making a statement that assumes that the issue being argued has already been decided

Ex. The reason everyone wants the new "Slap me silly elmo" doll is because this is the hottest toy of the season!"

Cause and effect

reasoning that assumes one event or condition can bring about another

Claim

the conclusion of an argument; what the arguer is trying to prove

Claim of fact

a claim that asserts something exists, has existed, or will exist, based on data that the audience will accept as objectively verifiable
EX: "The sky is blue"

Claim of policy

a claim asserting that specific courses of action should be instituted as solutions to problems
EX: Education: "Schools should offer more vocational training programs."

Claim of value

a claim that asserts some things are more or less desirable than others
EX: "Eating vegetables is better than eating meat,"

Cliché

a worn-out expression or idea, no longer capable of producing a visual image provoking thought about a subject
EX: "Actions speak louder than words."

Comparison warrant

a warrant based on shared characteristics and circumstances of two or more things or events; an analogy
EX: "because X is similar to Y, and Y has property Z, then X also has property Z".

Concrete language

language that describes specific, generally observable, persons, places, or things; in contrast to abstract language
EX:”Objects: "table," "chair," "dog," "car," "book," "window," "pencil"

Actions: "running," "jumping," "eating," "talking," "walking," "singing"

Connotation

the overtones that adhere to a word through long usage
EX: "home" can connote comfort and safety

Credibility

the audience's belief in the arguer's trustworthiness; see also ethos

Deduction

reasoning by which we establish that a conclusion must be true because the statements on which it is based are true; see also syllogism
EX: "All humans are mortal. Socrates is human. Therefore, Socrates is mortal".

Definition

an explanation of the meaning of a term, concept, or experience; may be used for clarification, especially of a claim, or as a means of developing an argument

Definition by negation

defining a thing by saying what it is not
Ex: Courage is not the absence of fear, but the ability to act despite it.

Ethos

the qualities of character, intelligence, and goodwill in an arguer that contribute to an audience's acceptance of the claim

Euphemism

a pleasant or flattering expression used in place of one that is less agreeable but possibly more accurate
EX: "Passed away" instead of "died"

Evidence

facts or opinions that support an issue or claim; may consist of statistics, reports of personal experience, or views of experts

Extended definition

a definition that uses several different methods of development

EX:
Success is more than just achieving wealth or fame—it is the fulfillment of one’s goals and aspirations. While some define success by financial prosperity, others see it as personal happiness or making a positive impact on others. It is not merely the absence of failure, but rather the persistence through challenges. For instance, a student may view success as mastering a difficult subject, while an artist might define it as expressing their creativity authentically. True success often requires dedication, resilience, and adaptability

Fact

something that is believed to have objective reality, a piece of information regarded as verifiable

Factual evidence

support consisting of data that is considered objectively verifiable by the audience

Fallacy

an error of reasoning based on faulty use of evidence or incorrect inference

False analogy

assuming without sufficient proof that if objects or processes are similar in some ways, then they are similar in other ways as well

False analogy example public school

Historically, public schools have done very well, so the problems of public schools today-lack ofachievement, lack of discipline - are due to ineffective teachers. (Reality: Public schools have only beentruly inclusive of all students since the mid-1900's; also, achievement standards have been raised overtime.)

False analogy example private school

The private school down the street has better teachers and children get a better education because 100%of their seniors get into a college. (Reality: The private school only has to accept some students, not all.)

False analogy example group of teenagers

That group of teenagers is up to no good - they are out after dark, and they are wearing dark clothes andbaggy pants. (Reality: This is a stereotype - the group of teenagers could be a sports team or church group.)

False analogy example coffee

People who cannot go without their coffee every morning are no better than alcoholics

False dilemma

simplifying a complex problem into an either/or dichotomy

Ex. all or nothing - "you are either with God or against him"

Faulty emotional appeals

basing an argument on feelings, especially pity or fear—often to draw attention away from the real issues or conceal another purpose
EX: I've had such a bad day, and this cake would just make me feel so much better. You don't want me to be sad, right?

Faulty use of authority

failing to acknowledge disagreement among experts or otherwise misrepresenting the trustworthiness of sources
EX: "My favorite actor says this new diet is the best for weight loss, so it must be true."

Generalization

a statement of general principle derived inferentially from a series of examples
EX: "Teenagers are always on their phones."

Hasty generalization

drawing conclusions from insufficient evidence
EX: "I met two rude people from New York, so everyone from New York must be rude."

Induction

reasoning by which a general statement is reached on the basis of particular examples

Inference

an interpretation of the facts

Motivational appeal

an attempt to reach an audience by recognizing their needs and values and how these contribute to their decision making

Motivational warrant

a type of warrant based on the needs and values of an audience

Need

in the hierarchy of Abraham Maslow, whatever is required, whether psychological or physiological, for the survival and welfare of a human being

Non sequitur

"it does not follow"; using irrelevant proof to buttress a claim

Picturesque language

words that produce images in the minds of the audience

Policy

a course of action recommended or taken to solve a problem or guide decisions

Post hoc

mistakenly inferring that because one event follows another they have a casual relation; ("after this, therefore because of this"); also called "doubtful cause"

Post hoc example

Let's not take Bill on our picnic. Every time we take him out with us, it rains.'

Qualifier

a restriction placed on the claim to state that it may not always be true as stated

Refutation

an attack on an opposing view in order to weaken it, invalidate it, or make it less credible

Reservation

a restriction placed on the warrant to indicate that unless certain conditions are met, the warrant may not establish a connection between the support and the claim

Sign warrant

a warrant that offers an observable datum as an indicator of a condition

Ex. Dateline and gas tanks exploding

Slanting

selecting facts or words with connotations that favor the arguer's bias and discredit alternatives

Ex. Only choosing evidence that supports your bias/claims

Slippery slope

predicting without justification that one step in a process will lead unavoidably to a second, generally undesirable step (fallacy)

Slogan

an attention-getting expression used largely in politics or advertising to promote support of a cause or product

Statistics

information expressed in numerical form

Stipulative definition

a definition that makes clear that it will explore a particular area of meaning of a term or issue

Stipulative definition example

Ex: Suppose we say that to love someone is to be willing to die for that person.

Take "human" to mean any member of the species Homo sapiens.

For the purposes of argument, we will define a "student" to be "a person under 18 enrolled in alocal school".

Straw man

disputing a view similar to, but not the same as, that of the arguer's opponent

Straw man example senator

Senator Smith says that the nation should not add to the defense budget. Senator Jones says that hecannot believe that Senator Smith wants to leave the nation defenseless.

Straw man example new girl

Caroline says that she thinks her friends should not be so rude to the new girl. Jenna says that she cannot believe that Caroline is choosing to be better friends with the new girl than the girls who have always known her

Straw man example secretary

Pamela is the class secretary. She says that she thinks that the class should do more service projects.Mark says he can't believe that Pamela doesn't support the annual school dance.

Style

choices in words and sentence structure that make a writer's language distinctive

Substantive warrant

a warrant based on beliefs about the reliability of factual evidence

Support

any material that serves to prove an issue or claim; in addition to evidence, it includes appeals to the needs and values of the audience

Syllogism

a formula of deductive argument consisting of three propositions: a major premise, a minor premise, and a conclusion

Two wrongs make a right

diverting attention from the issue by introducing a new point, e.g., by responding to an accusation with a counteraccusation that makes no attempt to refute the first accusation

Two wrongs make a right example Trump comments

Donald Trump defends his comments about women by pointing at the behavior of Bill Clinton toward women.

Two wrongs make a right example Trump tax

Donald Trump defends his tax record and the fact that he didn't pay very much in taxes by pointing outthat other wealthy Americans took advantage of the same tax laws that allowed him to pay less.

Two wrongs make a right example shoes

Marie made fun of Sarah's shoes yesterday. Today, Sarah makes fun of Marie's haircut and tells herteacher that it should be okay because of what Marie did yesterday.

Values

conceptions or ideas that act as standards for judging what is right or wrong, worthwhile or worthless, beautiful or ugly, good or bad

Warrant

a general principle or assumption that establishes a connection between the support and the claim

Example of Warrant

Rick has fair skin and sunbathed all day. Warrant: People with fair skin usually get sunburned. Evidence: People with fair skin have less melanin in their skin, making them more susceptible to sunburn. Conclusion: Rick will get sunburned.

Ad hominem example

Kaffee attacking the doctor in a few good men.