Exam #2

which research method is colorimetric assay to measure the concentration of a specific ligand?

ELISA

which of the following is a disadvantage of cell culture experimentation?

the cells are isolated from the rest of the brain

which is not an example of a challenge with studying humans?

there aren’t enough differences between people to study them

what experimental technique was used in this image?

immunohistochemistry

which of the following techniques measures gross brain activity?

EEG

which task test for language abilities?

token task

you are interested to see how mice will perform in a maze task if they do not have a specific gene (gene X23); what type of mice are you most likely going to use?

knock out mice

which of the following is false about stereotaxic surgery?

if you write down the coordinates you used, there is no need to verify (postmortem) that you hit the correct area of the brain

sleep spindles are seen in stage ___ sleep and K complexes are seen in stage ___ sleep:

2; 2

just before sleep, ___ waves appear:

alpha

the EEG for REM sleep most closely resembles which EEG?

alert wakefulness

which sleep theory is summarized by “being awake disturbs homeostasis and sleep is required to restore it”?

recuperating theory

which theory of dreaming says that our dreams are simulations of everything that prepare us to respond to situations better in real life?

hobson’s protoconsciousness hypothesis

if the ___ region of the brain is damaged, a person will not experience any visual imagery in their dreams:

medial occipital lobe

why is sleep deprivation so difficult to study?

people who are sleep deprived also experience high levels of stress

in the reticular formation, high levels of activity lead to ___; in the reticular formation, low levels of activity lead to ___:

wakefulness; sleep

melatonin is best categorized into which drug class?

circadian rhythm drugs

this condition is caused by the lack of muscle atonia during REM:

REM-sleep behavior disorder

select all of the statements about narcolepsy that are true:

a characteristic symptom of narcolepsy is cataplexy, where muscle tone is lost while awake, often resulting in falls

EEG

a test that measures electrical activity in the brain using small, metal discs

EOG

a measure of eye movement

EMG

a record of muscle tension

frequency

number of peaks/unit time; number of cortical neurons generating EPSPs

amplitude

height of the wave; number of EPSPs that occur at the same point in time and number of neurons firing in synchrony

alpha waves

high frequency and high amplitude

sleep spindle

high frequency and low amplitude; involved in memory consolidation and cortical development

k complex

single, large negative wave followed by a single, large positive wave; suppresses cortisol arousal

delta wave

low frequency and high amplitude

adaptation theories of sleep

sleep evolved to protect organisms from predation, accidents, and to conserve energy - not to fulfill a physiological need

hobson’s activation-synthesis hypothesis

• many brain stem circuits are active

• the cortex is bombarded with signals

• information from signals are largely random

• dreams are the brain trying to make sense of the random signals

revonsuo’s evolutionary theory of dreams

• dreams serve an important evolutionary function

• dreams simulate threatening events

• these simulations help us better predict and respond to threats in real life

hobson’s protoconsciousness hypothesis

• dreams simulate everything

• dreams as a training mechanism

• each dream represents a real-life scenario

no dreams in:

temporo-parieto junction + medial prefrontal cortex

no visual imagery in dreams:

medial occipital lobe

jet lag

a mismatch between a person’s normal daily rhythms and a new time zone

shift work

workers are forced to adjust their natural sleep-wake cycles in order to meet the demands of changing work schedules

anterior hypothalamus

promotes sleep

posterior hypothalamus

promotes wakefulness

reticular formation - low levels

produce sleep

reticular formation - high levels

produce wakefulness

caudal reticular formation

production of REM sleep

hypnotic drug

drugs that promote or increase sleep

anti-hypnotic drug

drugs that inhibit or reduce sleep

circadian rhythm drugs

drugs that alter circadian rhythms

benzodiazepines

GABA agonists with anxiolytic, anticonvulsant, and sedative properties

chronic use of benzodiazepines:

tolerance, insomnia after stopping, distort normal sleep patterns, next day drowsiness, reduce life expectancy

cocaine/amphetamine derived + tricyclic antidepressants

these promote wakefulness by increasing the activity of catecholamines - dopamine, epinephrine, and norepinephrine

side effects of anti-hypnotics:

anxiety, tremors, dependency, reduced appetite, disrupted sleeping patterns, and masking because of sleepiness

melatonin

hormone synthesized from serotonin in the pineal gland

insomnia

sleep disorder that can make it hard to fall asleep, hard to stay asleep, or cause you to wake up too early and not be able to fall back asleep

causes of insomnia

medications, sleep apnea, disorders that cause limb movement (restless leg syndrome)

narcolepsy

severe daytime sleepiness; repeated brief (10-15 minutes) daytime sleep episodes

cataplexy

recurring losses of muscle tone during wakefulness

sleep paralysis

inability to move just as one is falling asleep or waking up

hypnagogic hallucinations

dreamlike experiences during wakefulness

REM-sleep behavior disorders

REM sleep without core-muscle atonia; people can then act out their dreams

system variable

what are you trying to regulate?

set point

optimal value

detector

monitors system variable

correctional mechanism

return to setpoint; water, nutrients

negative feedback

regulates activity

osmosis

movement of water thru a semipermeable membrane form to high solute concentration

osmoreceptors

firing rate determined by hydration; shrinking cells changes firing and signal the brain

what part of your regulatory mechanism returns your system to its optimal value?

correctional mechanism

true or false - too much water in red blood cells means they are hypertonic, and they will burst:

false

what is the first step of digestion?

chewing breaks down food in the mouth

which four organ systems are involved in maintaining homeostasis?

circulatory, urinary, gastro-intestinal, and respiratory

in short term energy storage, ___ from the food is converted into ___ and stored in the ___:

glucose, glycogen, liver and muscle cells

this phase of metabolism is the preparatory phase that sets the body up to be able to accept the influx of food:

cephalic phase

which stage of metabolism has low levels of insulin and high levels of glucagon?

fasting phase

energy metabolism

the chemical changes by which energy is made available for an organism’s use

cephalic metabolism

prepares the body for the food it needs to absorb

absorptive metabolism

energy is absorbed into the bloodstream and meets the body’s immediate demands for energy

fasting phase

all unstored energy from the previous meal has been used and the body is drawing from its reserves to meet the body’s next cephalic phase

environmental satiety factors

taste, people, portions, time of day, food presentation

sensory satiety factors

appearance/odor/taste/texture/temperature, tasting and swallowing vs. feeding tube, age related losses

liver satiety factors

first to know food is being received from the intestines; sends a satiety signal to the brain in response to nutrients

which side of the light-dark box will a rat spend more time in if they are displaying anxiety-like behaviors?

dark

most studies that use mazes (radial arm, T maze, plus maze, water maze) are trying to study which phenomenon?

memory

which of the following is not one of the considerations for using a specific species in a research study?

if the research has the animal as a pet

cell culture

removing cells from their natural environment and growing them in an artificial, but favorable environment

advantages of cell culture

extreme level of experimental control, cell type, high throughput, ethical consideration

disadvantages of cell culture

cells in isolation, artificial environment, generational concerns

slice culture

extraction and growth of portions of intact brain regions; allows for cellular and synaptic integrity

elisa (enzyme linked immunosorbent assay)

colorimetric assay to measure the presence of a specific ligand in a sample

immunohistochemistry

use of stain and visualize specific cellular components such as proteins and other macromolecules

selecting the best animal to study

goal: learn something about human condition, disease, or behavior; considerations: behaviors, species limitations, size, cost, existing literature, similarity to humans

knock out model

organisms bred to lack a specific gene

knock in model

replacing a gene with another or adding in a new one that doesn’t exist typically in that organism

transgenic model

putting genes from one species into another

deep brain stimulation (dbs)

for chronic pain, personality disorders, epilepsy, ocd, depression

cerebral angiography

injection of dye that will differ in x-ray absorbance into blood vessel into vertebral artery; shows cerebral vasculature and abnormalities

pet scan

injection of radioactive sugar into carotid artery; gets taken up like glucose but can’t be metabolized → radioactive sugar accumulates

mri

measures the waves emitted by activated hydrogen atoms

mri: diffuse tensor imaging

based on movement of water molecules; shows major tracts of the brain (tract: bundle of axons)

fmri (functional mri)

measures increases in oxygenated blood flow

transcranial magnetic stimulation

use of magnets near the skull to turn on (stimulate) or turn off a region of the cortex

intelligence behavioral tasks

wechsler adult intelligence scale (wais), verbal comprehension, perceptual reasoning, working memory, processing speed

memory behavioral task

digit span test

language behavioral task

token test