Chapter 15-18 - Monarchy/Oligarchic States

Absolutism (17th extendash18th centuries)

A system of government in which the monarch holds supreme authority and is not limited by a constitution, parliament, or nobility.

• Justified by the Divine Right of Kings, which claimed that monarchs were chosen by God and accountable only to Him.

• Absolutist rulers sought to:

  • Control the nobility.

  • Centralize taxation.

  • Create standing armies.

  • Enforce religious unity.

• France under Louis XIV is the classic example, though similar systems existed in Austria, Prussia, and Russia.

Divine Right of Kings

Political and religious doctrine stating that kings derive their authority directly from God.

• Made obedience to the monarch a religious duty, and rebellion a sin.

• Supported by church figures such as Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet, who was a bishop and court preacher to Louis XIV.

• Widely accepted in France, Spain, and Eastern Europe.

• Strongly challenged in England, leading to the establishment of a constitutional monarchy.

Louis XIV (r. 1643 extendash1715, France)

Known as the Sun King, symbolizing that all power radiated from him.

• Came to the throne as a child; deeply influenced by the chaos of the Fronde, which made him distrust the nobility.

• Built the most centralized monarchy in Europe:

  • Nobles lost political power.

  • Bureaucrats answered directly to the king.

• His reign marked the height of absolutism, but it also left France financially strained and militarily exhausted.

Key Phrase: “L’État, c’est moi”

Translates to “I am the state.”

• Phrase attributed to Louis XIV (although it may be apocryphal).

• Captures the essence of absolutism: the king embodies the government.

• Shows the fusion of personal authority and state power.

• Used by historians to describe Louis’s governing philosophy.

Versailles (expanded 1660s extendash1680s)

Massive palace built outside Paris.

• Served as:

  • Royal residence.

  • Administrative center.

  • Political weapon.

• Nobles were required to attend court rituals, which:

  • Kept them dependent on royal favor.

  • Distracted them from local power bases.

• The lavish lifestyle reinforced royal prestige but drained state finances.

The Fronde (1648 extendash1653)

Series of revolts by:

- The parlements (judicial elites).

- The nobility.

• Occurred during Louis XIV’s minority under Cardinal Mazarin.

• Rebels resisted increased taxation and central authority.

• Ultimately failed due to disunity.

• Convinced Louis XIV that:

  • Nobles could not be trusted.

  • Absolute control was necessary.

Intendants

Royal officials appointed by the king.

• Sent to provinces to oversee:

  • Tax collection.

  • Justice.

  • Policing.

• Chosen from the middle class, not from the nobility.

• Loyal only to the king.

• Considered one of the most effective tools of absolutist centralization.

Parlements

Regional high courts in France.

• Had the power to register royal laws.

• Could delay laws by issuing remonstrances.

• Became centers of limited resistance to absolutism.

• Louis XIV reduced their influence, forcing the registration of laws.

La Gloire de France

Ideology emphasizing French greatness, prestige, and dominance.

• Used to justify:

  • Expensive wars.

  • Cultural patronage.

  • Territorial expansion.

• Closely tied to Louis XIV’s personal image as the Sun King.

• Often prioritized honor over economic stability.

War of Devolution (1667 extendash1668)

Louis XIV claimed parts of the Spanish Netherlands through his wife’s inheritance.

• First major war of his reign.

• Revealed:

  • France’s military strength.

  • European fear of French expansion.

• Ended due to pressure from other powers, especially the Dutch.

League of Augsburg (1686)

Coalition formed to stop French expansion.

• Included:

  • Holy Roman Empire.

  • Spain.

  • Sweden.

  • Dutch Republic.

  • England.

• Demonstrates the emergence of balance of power diplomacy.

• Led to broader European conflicts.

War of Spanish Succession (1701 extendash1713)

Triggered by the death of Charles II of Spain without an heir.

• Fear that France and Spain would unite under the Bourbons.

• Major European war involving:

  • France.

  • Britain.

  • Austria.

  • Dutch Republic.

• Marked the limits of French power.

Treaty of Utrecht (1713)

Ended the War of Spanish Succession.

• Key terms:

  • France and Spain could not unite.

  • Britain gained territory and trade rights.

  • Austria gained Spanish lands in Italy.

• Strengthened Britain as a global power.

• Confirmed balance of power as a guiding principle.

Revocation of the Edict of Nantes (1685)

Also called the Edict of Fontainebleau.

• Ended religious toleration for French Protestants (Huguenots).

• Protestants were:

  • Forced to convert.

  • Exiled.

• Resulted in:

  • Loss of skilled workers.

  • Economic harm.

• Strengthened religious unity but weakened France long-term.

Background: Religious & Political Tension in Central Europe (Pre-1618)

After the Protestant Reformation, the Holy Roman Empire became religiously divided between Catholics and Protestants.

• The Peace of Augsburg (1555) attempted to settle this by allowing rulers to choose between Catholicism or Lutheranism for their territories (“cuius regio, eius religio”).

• Major problems remained:

  • Calvinism was not recognized.

  • Subjects who disagreed had limited protection.

  • The emperor still sought to strengthen Catholic authority.

Holy Roman Empire (Early 17th Century)

A loose collection of over 300 semi-independent states.

• Ruled by the Habsburg emperor, traditionally Catholic.

• German princes fiercely defended their autonomy.

• This political fragmentation made large-scale conflict likely.

Defenestration of Prague (1618)

Protestant nobles in Bohemia confronted Catholic officials representing Emperor Ferdinand II.

• Two imperial officials were thrown out of a window of Prague Castle.

• They survived, but this act symbolized open rebellion.

• This event directly triggered the Thirty Years’ War.

• Demonstrates how symbolic acts could ignite continent-wide conflict.

Thirty Years’ War (1618 extendash1648)

One of the most destructive wars in European history.

• Initially a religious war between Catholics and Protestants.

• Gradually became a political struggle for power and territory.

• Fought primarily in German lands.

• Resulted in massive population loss, famine, and economic collapse.

    Phase 1: The Bohemian Phase (1618   extendash1625)

Bohemian Protestants rebelled against Catholic Habsburg rule.

• Ferdinand II sought to re-Catholicize Bohemia.

• Catholic forces crushed Protestant resistance.

• Protestant lands were confiscated.

• Demonstrates early Catholic dominance.

    Phase 2: The Danish Phase (1625 extendash1629)

King Christian IV of Denmark, a Lutheran, intervened.

• Sought to protect Protestant states and expand influence.

• Imperial forces, led by Albrecht von Wallenstein, defeated Danish armies.

• Ended with Catholic control expanding further.

• Reinforced fear of Habsburg absolutism.

    Phase 3: The Swedish Phase (1630    extendash1635)

Sweden, led by Gustavus Adolphus, entered the war.

• Motivated by:

  • Protestant defense.

  • Swedish power expansion.

• Gustavus introduced:

  • Mobile artillery.

  • Professional armies.

• Achieved major victories but was killed in battle (1632).

• Marked a turning point against Habsburg dominance.

    Phase 4: The Franco-Swedish Phase (1635 extendash1648)

Catholic France, under Cardinal Richelieu, entered the war.

• France sided with Protestants to weaken the Habsburgs.

• Shows how politics outweighed religion in this conflict.

• Led to prolonged devastation across Central Europe.

• Resulted directly in war exhaustion and peace negotiations.

Peace of Westphalia (1648)

Series of treaties ending the Thirty Years’ War.

• Key outcomes:

  • Recognized Catholicism, Lutheranism, and Calvinism.

  • German princes gained greater sovereignty.

  • Holy Roman Emperor’s power weakened.

• Established the idea that states control their own affairs.

• Often seen as the foundation of the modern state system.

Religious Pluralism

Emergence of acceptance that multiple Christian denominations could coexist.

• This development did not arise from mere tolerance, but from war fatigue.

• Marked a decline of religious uniformity as a political goal.

• Reinforced the separation of religious belief from political authority.

• Became a long-term feature of European diplomacy.

Leopold I (r. 1658 extendash1705, Habsburg Austria)

Holy Roman Emperor from the Habsburg dynasty.

• Ruled during constant warfare against the Ottoman Empire and France.

• Strong supporter of Catholicism and absolutist rule.

• Oversaw the defense of Vienna during Ottoman threats.

• Reinforced Habsburg authority in Central Europe.

Joseph I (r. 1705 extendash1711, Habsburg Austria)

Son of Leopold I.

• Continued absolutist governance and military efforts.

• Supported the War of Spanish Succession.

• Died young, leaving succession issues unresolved.

Charles VI (r. 1711 extendash1740, Habsburg Austria)

Holy Roman Emperor and Habsburg ruler.

• Issued the Pragmatic Sanction (1713).

• Spent much of his reign securing European acceptance of female inheritance.

• His death destabilized Habsburg authority.

Pragmatic Sanction (1713)

Legal decree issued by Charles VI.

• Allowed his daughter, Maria Theresa, to inherit Habsburg lands.

• Required recognition by other European powers.

• Intended to preserve dynastic continuity.

• Challenged after Charles VI’s death.

Maria Theresa (r. 1740 extendash1780, Austria)

Daughter of Charles VI.

• First female ruler of Habsburg lands.

• Strengthened bureaucracy and taxation.

• Preserved Habsburg power despite military challenges.

• Practiced centralized absolutist rule.

Junkers (Prussia)

Landowning noble class in Prussia.

• Dominated the officer corps and bureaucracy.

• Loyal to the monarchy in exchange for social privilege.

• Central to Prussian militarism and reinforced hierarchical society.

Frederick William (the Great Elector) (r. 1640 extendash1688, Brandenburg-Prussia)

Member of the Hohenzollern dynasty.

• Built a standing army.

• Centralized taxation and administration.

• Reduced power of provincial estates.

• Laid the foundations for Prussian power.

Frederick I (r. 1701 extendash1713, Prussia)

Son of the Great Elector.

• Crowned himself King in Prussia.

• Increased royal prestige.

• Continued centralization but focused less on military efficiency.

Frederick William I (r. 1713 extendash1740, Prussia extemdash “Soldier King”)

Intensely militaristic ruler.

• Expanded and disciplined the Prussian army.

• Reduced court luxury to fund the military.

• Strengthened bureaucratic efficiency.

• Created a highly obedient state.

Frederick II (the Great) (r. 1740 extendash1786, Prussia)

Son of Frederick William I.

• Combined absolutism with Enlightenment ideas.

• Expanded Prussian territory.

• Patron of philosophy and arts.

• Ruled as an Enlightened Absolutist.

Hohenzollerns of Prussia

Ruling dynasty of Brandenburg-Prussia.

• Built power through military strength.

• Practiced strict absolutism.

• Created a centralized, disciplined state.

• Dominated German politics.

Time of Troubles (1598 extendash1613, Russia)

Period of dynastic crisis and famine.

• Widespread rebellion and foreign intervention.

• Weak central authority.

• Ended with the establishment of the Romanov dynasty.

• Shaped Russian fear of instability.

Ivan the Terrible (r. 1547 extendash1584, Russia)

First ruler crowned Tsar of Russia.

• Centralized power violently.

• Created secret police (oprichnina).

• Crushed boyar opposition.

• Established tradition of Russian autocracy.

Michael Romanov (r. 1613 extendash1645, Russia)

First Romanov tsar.

• Elected by Zemsky Sobor.

• Restored stability after the Time of Troubles.

• Strengthened central authority.

• Founded Romanov dynasty.

Zemsky Sobor

Russian assembly of nobles, clergy, and townspeople.

• Selected Michael Romanov as tsar.

• Limited influence afterward.

• Reinforced autocratic rule rather than limiting it.

Boyars

Russian hereditary nobility.

• Controlled land and political influence.

• Often resisted tsarist authority.

• Gradually became subordinated under later tsars.

• Lost power to a centralized monarchy.

Streltsy

Elite Russian military units.

• Became politically influential.

• Rebelled against reforms.

• Suppressed brutally by Peter the Great.

• Symbol of resistance to modernization.

Peter the Great (r. 1682 extendash1725, Russia)

Westernized Russian society and government.

• Reformed military and administration.

• Forced cultural changes (dress, customs).

• Built a strong navy.

• Strengthened absolutist rule.

Table of Ranks

Bureaucratic ranking system created by Peter the Great.

• Ranked officials by service, not birth.

• Reduced hereditary noble privilege.

• Encouraged loyalty to the tsar.

• Strengthened centralized administration.

Catherine the Great (r. 1762 extendash1796, Russia)

Enlightened absolutist ruler.

• Expanded Russian territory.

• Strengthened the nobility’s power.

• Promoted education and culture.

• Maintained autocratic authority.

Pugachev’s Rebellion (1773  extendash1775)

Massive peasant revolt in Russia.

• Claimed to be the rightful tsar.

• Challenged Catherine’s authority.

• Brutally suppressed.

• Demonstrated limits of reform.

Millets

Administrative units for religious minorities in the Ottoman Empire (e.g., Christians, Jews).

• Allowed communities to manage internal affairs such as education, marriage, and worship.

• Provided a degree of religious autonomy while remaining loyal to the sultan.

• Ensured stability in a diverse empire and integrated minority populations into governance.

Dhimmis

Non-Muslim subjects under Ottoman rule, primarily Christians and Jews.

• Protected by law but required to pay the jizya tax.

• Had limited political and legal rights compared to Muslims.

• Allowed the Ottoman Empire to include diverse populations while asserting Islamic authority.

Devshirme

System of recruiting Christian boys from the Balkans.

• Boys were converted to Islam and trained for administrative or military service.

• Produced Janissaries, elite soldiers loyal to the sultan.

• Functioned as both a social control and military modernization tool.

Janissaries

Elite infantry corps of the Ottoman Empire.

• Originated from boys recruited via the devshirme system.

• Known for discipline, military skill, and loyalty to the sultan.

• Became politically powerful over time, sometimes resisting reform.

• Central to Ottoman military success during the 15th extendash17th centuries.

James I (r. 1603 extendash1625)

First Stuart king of England and Scotland.

• Strong advocate of the Divine Right of Kings, believing the monarch’s authority came directly from God.

• Clashed frequently with Parliament over taxation and religious policy.

• His financial mismanagement and insistence on royal prerogative laid groundwork for future conflicts with Parliament.

Charles I (r. 1625 extendash1649)

Son of James I; continued absolutist policies.

• Attempted to rule without Parliament, raising revenue through measures like ship money.

• Married Henrietta Maria (a Catholic French princess), fueling distrust among Protestant subjects.

• His policies directly led to the English Civil War.

Petition of Right (1628)

Parliamentary document limiting royal authority.

• Prohibited arbitrary taxation, imprisonment without cause, and quartering of troops.

• Charles I initially agreed but later ignored it.

• Represented a growing assertion of Parliamentary rights against divine-right monarchy.

Short Parliament (1640)

Charles I called Parliament for funding against Scottish rebellion.

• Parliament refused to grant funds without addressing grievances.

• Dissolved after only three weeks.

• An example of early friction between monarchy and Parliament.

Long Parliament (1640 extendash1660)

Reassembled by Charles I to address rebellion in Scotland.

• Passed reforms limiting the king’s power:

  • Triennial Act: Parliament must meet every 3 years.

  • Abolished some royal prerogatives.

• Led to an escalation of tensions, ultimately sparking civil war.

Grand Remonstrance (1641)

List of grievances presented by Parliament to Charles I.

• Criticized royal policies and arbitrary taxation.

• Strengthened Parliamentary unity against the king.

• Increased public awareness of the conflict between monarchy and Parliament.

Cavaliers vs Roundheads

Cavaliers: Supporters of Charles I, largely nobility and Anglican loyalists.

• Roundheads: Supporters of Parliament, often Puritans and middle-class townspeople.

• Conflict represented both political and religious divisions.

• Key factions in the English Civil War (1642 extendash1649).

New Model Army (1645)

Parliamentary army during the English Civil War.

• Highly disciplined and organized, led by Oliver Cromwell.

• Centralized command and merit-based promotions.

• Crucial in defeating Royalist forces.

Oliver Cromwell (1599 extendash1658)

Military leader of the Parliamentary forces; later declared Lord Protector.

• Ruled during the Puritan Republic (Commonwealth of England).

• Enforced strict Puritan moral codes.

• Suspended monarchy and House of Lords.

• Maintained strong military control over England and Ireland.

Puritan Republic / Commonwealth (1649 extendash1660)

Period of non-monarchical rule under Cromwell.

• Abolished House of Lords.

• Implemented Puritan social and religious reforms.

• Relied on New Model Army to enforce authority.

• Ended with the Restoration of Charles II.

Charles II (r. 1660 extendash1685)

Restored monarchy after the Puritan Republic.

• Balanced between royal authority and Parliamentary power.

• Attempted to increase toleration for Catholics and dissenters, leading to tensions.

• Oversaw Cabal ministries; early modern political factionalism.

James II (r. 1685 extendash1688)

Brother of Charles II.

• Openly Catholic, challenging Protestant establishment.

• Attempted to reassert royal prerogative.

• Overthrown in the Glorious Revolution (1688).

Glorious Revolution (1688)

William of Orange and Mary II invited to take the throne.

• Overthrew James II peacefully.

• Established constitutional monarchy in England.

• Reaffirmed Parliamentary supremacy over the crown.

William and Mary (r. 1689 extendash1702)

Co-monarchs installed after the Glorious Revolution.

• Accepted the Bill of Rights (1689):

  • Limited royal power.

  • Guaranteed parliamentary authority.

  • Protected civil liberties.

• Established a long-term framework for modern constitutional monarchy.

Bill of Rights (1689)

Legal foundation for the English constitutional monarchy.

• Guaranteed rights of Parliament, free elections, and trial by jury.

• Prevented the monarch from suspending laws or raising taxes without consent.

• Served as a model for later democratic developments.

Toleration Act (1689)

Granted limited religious freedom to Protestant dissenters.

• Excluded Catholics and non-Christians.

• Promoted partial religious pluralism in England.

Mutiny Act

Allowed the government to maintain a standing army under parliamentary oversight.

• Prevented the monarch from using the army independently.

• Strengthened Parliament’s control over military power.

Triennial Act (1694)

Required Parliament to meet at least once every three years.

• Prevented the monarch from ruling without parliamentary sessions.

• Limited the potential for absolutist rule in England.

Test Act

Required public officials to be members of the Church of England.

• Targeted Catholics and dissenters.

• Maintained Protestant dominance in government.

Popish Plot (1678)

Alleged Catholic conspiracy to assassinate Charles II.

• Heightened anti-Catholic hysteria.

• Increased political power of Whigs (opponents of monarchy) over Tories (supporters).

Cavalier Parliament

Supportive of monarchy, 1661 extendash1679.

• Restored Anglican Church authority.

• Passed laws to limit nonconformists, reinforcing Protestant establishment.

Whigs & Tories

Whigs: Supported Parliamentary authority; opposed Catholic influence.

• Tories: Supported monarchy; traditional Anglicanism.

• Early formation of political parties in England.

• Reflects tensions between absolutism and constitutionalism.

Queen Anne I (r. 1702 extendash1714)

Last Stuart monarch.

• Oversaw the Union of England and Scotland (1707).

• Continued constitutional monarchy tradition.

• Worked closely with Parliament to govern.

Bank of England (1694)

Created under William III to stabilize finances.

• Funded wars against France.

• Increased national credit and centralized fiscal authority.

Hanoverian Dynasty

Began with George I (r. 1714 extendash1727) after the Act of Settlement (1701).

• Ensured Protestant succession.

• Worked with Parliament, setting the pattern for modern British monarchy.

Act of Settlement (1701)

Ensured the English throne passed to Protestant heirs.

• Prevented Catholic succession.

• Key in stabilizing succession and limiting royal prerogative.

Robert Walpole (1676 extendash1745)

Often considered the first “Prime Minister” of Britain.

• Dominated government under Georges I and II.

• Strengthened parliamentary control over finances and policy.

• Established the precedent of cabinet government.

George II (r. 1727 extendash1760)

Hanoverian king.

• Worked with Parliament rather than asserting personal rule.

• Oversaw British expansion and colonial management.

• Continued transition toward constitutional monarchy.

William Pitt the Younger (1759 extendash1806)

Parliamentary leader in the late 18th century.

• Managed finances and war efforts (especially against France).

• Strengthened Britain’s global influence.

• Represents the evolution of ministerial government in constitutional monarchy.

John Locke (1632 extendash1704)

Philosopher and political theorist.

• Advocated natural rights: life, liberty, property.

• Supported the social contract and limited government.

• Influenced English constitutional development and revolutions.

William Hogarth (1697 extendash1764)

English painter and printmaker.

• Known for moralistic works critiquing society.

• Captured social commentary during Hanoverian Britain.

William Shakespeare (1564 extendash1616)

English playwright and poet.

• His works reflect political, social, and religious tension of Elizabethan and early Stuart England.

• Explored themes of power, legitimacy, and human nature.

Rump Parliament (1648 extendash1653)

Remaining members of Long Parliament after the purge of Royalist supporters.

• Executed Charles I.

• Abolished the monarchy and House of Lords.

• Established a Puritan republic under Cromwell.

Book of Common Prayer

Protestant liturgical book.

• Standardized worship in the Anglican Church.

• Used as a political tool to assert religious conformity.

Henrietta Maria

Catholic French queen; wife of Charles I.

• Viewed with suspicion by Protestant population.

• Influenced conflicts over religion and succession.

Agricultural Revolution

Period of innovation in European agriculture during the 17th extendash18th centuries.

• New techniques:

  • Crop rotation.

  • Selective breeding.

  • Better plows.

• Increased productivity supported population growth.

• Laid groundwork for commercial and industrial expansion.

• Directly influenced rural economies in France, England, and the Netherlands.

Jethro Tull (1674   extendash1741)

English agricultural innovator.

• Invented the seed drill, which allowed precise planting of seeds.

• Promoted mechanization and efficiency in farming.

• Contributed to higher crop yields and rural productivity.

Enclosure Movement

Common lands in England were consolidated into private farms.

• Reduced access for small farmers and commoners.

• Increased efficiency and agricultural output.

• Forced many peasants to move to cities, contributing to urban labor supply.

• Seen as controversial socially; linked to rural unrest.

Little Ice Age (approx. 14th extendash19th century)

Period of cooler temperatures across Europe.

• Shortened growing seasons and frequent crop failures.

• Contributed to famines, price revolutions, and social unrest.

• Exacerbated economic challenges for peasants and small farmers.

Commercial Revolution (16th extendash18th centuries)

Expansion of European trade and finance.

• Driven by exploration, colonization, and population growth.

• Increased use of banking, joint-stock companies, and insurance.

• Enabled the rise of capitalist economies and global trade networks.

Bank of England (1694)

Founded to fund the English government and wars, especially against France.

• Provided national credit and regulated currency.

• Strengthened state control over finances.

• Enabled venture capital and military funding.

Banking of Amsterdam

Early modern banking center in the Netherlands.

• Facilitated international trade and finance.

• Offered credit, bills of exchange, and currency exchange services.

• Key player in the Dutch commercial and maritime empire.

Double Entry Bookkeeping

Accounting system that records both credits and debits.

• Allowed merchants and states to track financial flows accurately.

• Promoted efficiency in commerce and trade.

• Adopted widely during the Commercial Revolution.

Venture Capital / Insurance

Investment and risk-sharing systems that funded trade and exploration.

• Supported Dutch East India Company and British East India Company.

• Spread financial risk across multiple investors.

• Contributed to economic growth and early capitalism.

Dutch East India Company (VOC, 1602)

Joint-stock company established to trade in Asia.

• Granted monopoly on trade in spices, silk, and other goods.

• Combined military and commercial power.

• Early model of corporate governance and global trade networks.

British East India Company (1600)

English counterpart to VOC.

• Controlled trade with India and Asia.

• Combined commercial activity with territorial influence.

• Funded by shareholders, reflecting modern capitalism.

Cottage Industry / Putting-Out System

Manufacturing system where work was done in homes or small workshops.

• Merchants supplied raw materials and collected finished goods.

• Precursor to industrial factories.

• Allowed rural populations to participate in emerging commercial economy.

Rebellion in Ireland (17th century)

Frequent uprisings due to religious and economic tensions.

• Protestants vs. Catholics, English colonization, and land disputes.

• Connected to the price revolution and economic hardship.

Richard Arkwright (1732 extendash1792)

Inventor of the water frame (spinning machine).

• Mechanized textile production.

• Revolutionized industry and labor in Britain.

• Part of a broader shift from cottage industry to proto-industrialization.

Price Revolution (16th extendash17th centuries)

Period of sustained inflation across Europe.

• Driven by population growth, silver from the Americas, and increased demand.

• Increased rents and hardship for peasants.

• Contributed to social unrest and shifts in economic power.

Baroque

Artistic style dominant in 17th-century Europe.

• Characterized by dramatic lighting, intense emotion, and grandeur.

• Prominent in architecture, painting, and sculpture.

• Served religious (Counter-Reformation) and political purposes.

• Examples include churches with ornate interiors, royal palaces, and dynamic paintings.