AP Psychology 100 pt OR terms

How is psychology formally defined in contemporary science?

The science of behavior and mental processes.

In the definition of psychology, what is the distinction between 'behavior' and 'mental processes'?

Behavior is an observable action, while mental processes are internal, subjective experiences inferred from behavior.

The 1960s movement that led psychology back to its interest in how the mind processes and retains information is known as the _____.

Cognitive revolution

The longstanding controversy over the relative contributions of genes and experience to psychological traits is known as the _____.

Nature–nurture issue

How does contemporary science typically resolve the tension of the nature–nurture issue?

It views traits and behaviors as arising from the interaction of nature and nurture, where nurture works on what nature provides.

In research, what is the purpose of an operational definition?

To provide precise, measurable statements of procedures and concepts to allow for replication.

Why is replication considered a vital part of the scientific method in psychology?

It confirms the reliability of findings by seeing if the same results occur with different participants and circumstances.

What is the primary limitation of descriptive research methods like case studies and naturalistic observations?

They describe behavior but do not explain its causes because they do not control variables.

Concept: Random sample

Definition: A sample that fairly represents a population because every member has an equal chance of inclusion. Example: Using a computer to pick every 100th person from a total voter registration list.

How can wording effects influence the results of a psychological survey?

Subtle changes in phrasing (e.g., 'aid to the needy' vs. 'welfare') can significantly alter people's expressed opinions.

What is the distinction between a positive correlation and a negative correlation?

A positive correlation means variables increase or decrease together; a negative correlation means one increases as the other decreases.

Why does correlation not prove causation?

While correlation indicates a relationship, it does not account for potential third variables that might cause both observed effects.

What is the defining characteristic of an experiment that distinguishes it from other research methods?

The investigator manipulates one or more independent variables to observe the effect on a dependent variable.

Concept: Random assignment

Definition: Assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance to minimize preexisting differences. Example: Flipping a coin to decide who receives a new medication or a placebo.

In an experiment, what is the difference between the independent variable (IV) and the dependent variable (DV)?

The IV is the factor being manipulated (the cause), while the DV is the factor being measured (the effect).

Concept: Social psychology

Definition: The scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another. Example: Studying how the presence of others affects an individual's willingness to help a stranger.

How does Fritz Heider's attribution theory categorize the ways we explain behavior?

As either dispositional attributions (internal traits) or situational attributions (external circumstances).

Concept: Fundamental attribution error

Definition: The tendency to underestimate situational influences and overestimate personality traits when analyzing others' behavior. Example: Assuming a quiet classmate is shy rather than just focused on an exam.

How does the actor-observer bias influence our attributions?

We tend to attribute our own actions to the situation while attributing others' actions to their stable traits.

What is the self-serving bias?

The tendency to perceive oneself favorably, often by attributing successes to internal traits and failures to external factors.

Concept: Peripheral route persuasion

Definition: Persuasion occurring when people are influenced by incidental cues rather than arguments. Example: Buying a product because a famous athlete endorses it in a commercial.

Concept: Central route persuasion

Definition: Persuasion occurring when interested people focus on the arguments and respond with favorable thoughts. Example: A car buyer researching fuel efficiency and safety ratings before purchasing.

The _____ phenomenon describes the tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request.

Foot-in-the-door

How did Philip Zimbardo's Stanford Prison Experiment demonstrate the impact of role playing on attitudes?

Participants assigned as 'guards' or 'prisoners' quickly adopted behaviors and attitudes consistent with those roles, showing that actions can shape beliefs.

Concept: Cognitive dissonance theory

Definition: The theory that we act to reduce the discomfort felt when two of our thoughts are inconsistent. Example: A person who smokes but knows it is unhealthy might convince themselves that the risk is exaggerated.

How did Leon Festinger suggest we resolve cognitive dissonance?

By changing our attitudes to bring them into alignment with our behaviors.

The 'chameleon effect,' where we unconsciously mimic others' expressions and postures, is a form of _____.

Social contagion

In Solomon Asch's conformity experiments, what primary factor led participants to give obviously wrong answers?

The pressure to conform to a group where everyone else gave the same incorrect response.

Concept: Normative social influence

Definition: Influence resulting from a person's desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval. Example: A teenager dressing in a certain style to fit in with their peer group.

Concept: Informational social influence

Definition: Influence resulting from one's willingness to accept others' opinions about reality. Example: Reading online reviews to decide which restaurant has the best food.

In Stanley Milgram's obedience studies, what percentage of participants complied fully by delivering the highest level of shock (450 volts)?

More than 60 percent.

What specific situational condition was found to increase obedience in Milgram's experiments?

The authority figure was close at hand and perceived to be a legitimate authority.

Concept: Social facilitation

Definition: Improved performance on simple or well-learned tasks in the presence of others. Example: A professional runner recording a faster time during a race with an audience than during a solo practice.

Concept: Social loafing

Definition: The tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward a common goal. Example: A student contributing very little to a group presentation because they know others will finish it.

Concept: Deindividuation

Definition: The loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity. Example: A normally law-abiding citizen participating in a riot while wearing a mask.

What is the primary cause of group polarization?

Group interaction enhances the prevailing inclinations of the group members.

How does the Internet affect group polarization?

It provides 'echo chambers' where people find like-minded others, which can significantly strengthen preexisting biases.

Concept: Groupthink

Definition: The mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives. Example: A committee agreeing on a flawed plan because no one wants to 'rock the boat' by disagreeing.

Distinguish between prejudice and discrimination.

Prejudice is an unjustifiable negative attitude, while discrimination is the negative behavior resulting from that attitude.

How does explicit prejudice differ from implicit prejudice?

Explicit prejudice is conscious and overt, while implicit prejudice is an unconscious, automatic association.

Concept: Just-world phenomenon

Definition: The tendency for people to believe the world is just and that people therefore get what they deserve. Example: Blaming a victim of a crime by suggesting their own actions caused the misfortune.

Concept: Ingroup bias

Definition: The tendency to favor our own group over others. Example: A sports fan believing their team's fans are more loyal and intelligent than the opposing team's fans.

The theory that prejudice offers an outlet for anger by providing someone to blame is called the _____.

Scapegoat theory

The 'outgroup homogeneity effect' refers to the tendency to perceive members of an outgroup as _____.

More similar to one another than members of our own ingroup.

Concept: Frustration-aggression hypothesis

Definition: The principle that frustration—the blocking of an attempt to achieve some goal—creates anger, which can generate aggression. Example: A driver getting cut off in traffic (frustration) and then shouting at the other driver (aggression).

Concept: Mere exposure effect

Definition: The phenomenon that repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases liking of them. Example: Growing to like a song more after hearing it played on the radio several times.

How does physical attractiveness impact initial social impressions?

People tend to perceive attractive individuals as healthier, happier, more successful, and more socially skilled.

What is the 'reward theory of attraction'?

We like those whose behavior is rewarding to us, and we continue relationships that offer more rewards than costs.

Concept: Bystander effect

Definition: The tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present. Example: Multiple people witnessing a car accident but none calling 911 because they assume someone else already did.

What social-psychological concept explains the bystander effect through the sharing of the burden of acting?

Diffusion of responsibility

Concept: Social exchange theory

Definition: The theory that our social behavior is an exchange process aimed at maximizing benefits and minimizing costs. Example: Deciding whether to donate blood by weighing the time and discomfort against the feeling of doing good.

Concept: Reciprocity norm

Definition: An expectation that people will help, not hurt, those who have helped them. Example: Feeling obligated to buy a gift for a friend who gave you a birthday present.

The _____ norm is the expectation that people will help those who are dependent on them, such as children or the elderly.

Social-responsibility

Concept: Equity theory

Definition: A condition in which people receive from a relationship in proportion to what they give to it. Example: A couple feeling satisfied in their marriage because they both share household chores and emotional support equally.

How does pluralistic ignorance contribute to the bystander effect?

Individuals in a group look to others to see how to react; if everyone remains calm, they assume there is no emergency.

Concept: Door-in-the-face technique

Definition: A strategy for gaining a concession by first making a large request that will be turned down, followed by a smaller request. Example: Asking a parent for $100 (knowing they will say no), then asking for $20 instead.

According to the empathy-altruism hypothesis, what determines whether a person will help a victim?

The degree to which the bystander feels empathy for the victim's plight.

What finding from Bibb Latane and John Darley's research was inspired by the Kitty Genovese murder?

The presence of others inhibits helping behavior because of a diffusion of responsibility.

Identify the three main descriptive methods used by psychologists to observe and describe behavior.

Case studies, naturalistic observations, and surveys.

In the context of research, what is a 'variable'?

Anything that can vary and contribute to a result.

What is the main goal of the 'Contact Hypothesis' in social psychology?

To reduce prejudice and conflict between groups through frequent, positive interaction.

How does 'social inhibition' differ from 'social facilitation'?

Social inhibition is the tendency to perform worse on complex or unfamiliar tasks in the presence of others.

How does the 'mere-exposure effect' apply to interpersonal attraction?

Proximity and repeated contact with someone increases the likelihood that we will find them attractive.

In an experiment, what is the role of the 'control group'?

It serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment by not being exposed to the independent variable.

How can learning about the social barriers to helping, such as the bystander effect, actually increase prosocial behavior?

Awareness of these dynamics can free individuals from the inhibiting effects of socialization and the presence of others.

What does 'naturalistic observation' entail?

Recording the natural behavior of individuals in their own environment without trying to manipulate the situation.

Why is it important to consider the 'sample' when evaluating survey findings?

Findings from an unrepresentative sample cannot be generalized to the larger population.

What does it mean for a correlation to be 'statistically significant'?

The observed relationship is unlikely to have occurred by chance.

In social psychology, what is 'group dynamic'?

The study of the processes and behaviors that occur within or between social groups.

How does 'social identity theory' explain ingroup favoritism?

People derive self-esteem from their group memberships, leading them to view their own group more positively than others.

Concept: Altruistic helping

Definition: Helping purely out of desire to benefit another, without regard for internal or external rewards. Example: Anonymously donating money to a family in need.

Concept: Egoistic helping

Definition: Helping others to gain a reward or avoid a punishment for oneself. Example: Volunteering at a shelter specifically to improve one's resume.

What does 'reciprocal helping' suggest about human prosociality?

We help others because we expect that they may help us in return in the future.

In social psychology, what is 'mirror-image perception'?

Reciprocal views of each other often held by conflicting people, where each side sees itself as ethical and the other as evil.

What is the 'social trap' concept?

A situation in which conflicting parties, by each pursuing their self-interest rather than the good of the group, become caught in mutually destructive behavior.

How can 'superordinate goals' help resolve conflict between groups?

Shared goals that override differences and require cooperation can turn enemies into friends.

How does 'companionate love' differ from 'passionate love'?

Passionate love is an intense longing for union, while companionate love is a deep, affectionate attachment for those with whom our lives are intertwined.

What is the 'scarcity principle' in the context of social perception?

The tendency to perceive things as more valuable when they are less available, which can disrupt neural encoding of social information.

How does the 'minimal group paradigm' demonstrate the ease of creating ingroup bias?

It shows that people will favor their own group even when groups are formed based on trivial or arbitrary criteria.

What is 'stereotypical threat'?

A self-confirming concern that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype.

How does 'self-efficacy' influence social behavior?

One's belief in their ability to succeed in specific situations impacts their willingness to take social risks or help others.

In psychological research, what is a 'case study'?

An in-depth analysis of a single individual or small group, often used to study rare phenomena.

What is the primary danger of relying solely on 'anecdotal evidence' or individual case studies?

One individual might be an outlier and not representative of the general population, leading to false conclusions.

How does 'random sampling' help avoid a 'biased sample'?

It ensures that every subgroup of the population has an equal chance of being represented, minimizing systematic errors.

In an experiment, what is a 'confounding variable'?

A factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment.

What is the purpose of a 'placebo' in a drug study?

To act as a control to ensure that the results are due to the drug itself rather than the participants' expectations of healing.

What is the 'double-blind procedure'?

An experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the staff are ignorant about who received the treatment or the placebo.

What is 'social proof'?

A psychological phenomenon where people assume the actions of others in an attempt to reflect correct behavior in a given situation.

How does 'group development' typically progress in social psychology?

Through stages of forming, storming, norming, and performing as a group works toward a goal.