Pysch Quiz 2

a quiz that is going to put me through the depths of hell

Nonassociative

learning about a stimulus, such as sight or sound, in the external world

Habituation

Under Nonassociative: when our behavioral response to a stimulus decreases

Sensitization

Under Nonassociative: when our behavioral response to a stimulus increases

Associative

Learning the relationship between two pieces of information;

Classical Conditioning

Under Associative; When we learn that a stimulus predicts another stimulus

Operant Conditioning

Under Associative; When we learn that a behavior leads to a certain outcome

Observational

Learning by watching how others behave

Modeling

Under Observational; Imitiating a behavior seen in others

Vicarious Learning

Under Observational; learning to engage in a behavior or not, after seeing others being rewarded or punished for performing that action

Learning

any relatively permanent change in behavior brought about by experience or practice

Ivan Pavlov

Russian physiologist who discovered classical conditioning through his work on digestion in dogs

Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

a naturally occurring stimulus that leads to an involuntary and unlearned response

Unconditioned response

an involuntary and unlearned response to a naturally occuring or unconditioned stimulus

Conditioned Taste Aversion

nausea or aversive response to a particular taste because that taste was followed by a nausea reaction; only occurs after one association

Operant Conditioning

the learning of voluntary behavior through the effects of pleasant and unpleasant consequences to responses

Thorndike’s Law of Effect

• if a response is followed by a pleasurable consequence, it will tend to be repeated

• If a response is followed by an unpleasant consequence, it will tend not to be repeated

B.F. Skinner

A behaviorist; he wanted to study only observable, measurable behavior

• gave the name “operant conditioning” its name

Learning depends on what happens after the response: the consequence

Reinforcement

any event or stimulus, that when following a response, increases the probability that the response will occur again

Primary Reinforcer

aby reinforcer that is naturally reinforcing by meeting a basic biological need, such as hunger, thirist, or touch

Secondary Reinforcer

any reingorcer that becomes reinforcing after being paired with a primary reinforcer, such as praise, tokens, or gold stars

Positive Reinforcement

reinforcement of a response by the addition or experience of a pleasurable stimulus

Negative Reinforcement

the reinforcement of a response by the removal, escape from, or avoidance of an unpleasant stimulus

Punishment

any event or object that, when following a response, makes that response less likely to happen again

Positive Punishment

the administration of a stimulus to decrease the probability of a behavior recurring

• spanking

Negative Punishment

the removal of a stimulus to decrease the probability of a behavior recurring

• grounding

Discriminative Stimulus

any stimulus, such as a stop sign or a doorknob, that provides the organism with a cue for making a certain response in order to obtain reinforcement

Extinction

occurs if the behavior (response) is not reinforced

Behavior Modification

use of operant conditioning techniques to bring about desired changes in behavior

Token Economy

type of behavior modification in which desired behavior is rewarded with tokens

Insight

the sudden perception of relationships among various parts of a problem, allowing the solution to the problem to come quickly

Learned Helplessness

tendency to fail to act to escape from a situation because of a history of repeated failures in the past

Latent Learning

Tolman; learning occurs but behavior not manifested until organism has reason to demonstrate it

Observational Learning

learning new behavior by watching a model perform that behavior

Behavior can be desirable or not desirable

Learning/Performance Distinction

learning can take place without actual performance of the learned behavior

Bandura and the Bobo Doll

The Four Elements of Observational Learning: Attention

to learn anything observation, the learner must first pay attention to the model

The Four Elements of Observational Learning: Memory

the learner must also be able to retain the memory of what was done, such as remembering the steps in preparing a dish that were first seen on a cooking show

The Four Elements of Observational Learning: Imitation

the learner must be capable of reproducing, or imitating, the actions of the model

The Four Elements of Observational Learning: Desire

the learner must have the motivation to perform the action

Memory

is a process and has a “place” in the brain;

an active system that receives information from the senses, organizes and alters that information as it stores it away, and then retrieves the information from storage

Three stages of memory

encoding: information is acquired and processed

storage: information is stored in the brain

retrieval: information us retrieved when it is needed

Sensory Memory

information lost within a second or so

iconic memory = visual

echoic memory = auditory

Short-Term Memory

Unrehearsed information lost in about 15-30 seconds

Long-term Memory

information retained indefinitely although some may be difficult to retrieve

Memory Span

the amount of information held in working memory

George Miller - 7 items +/-2

Implicit Memory

memory that is not easily brought into conscious awareness

Anterograde Amneasia

loss of memory from the point of injury or trauma forward, or the inability to form new long-term memories

Declarative (explicit) memory

type of long-term memory containing information that is conscious and known

semantic: memory for facts and information

episodic: memory for personal events

declarative

requires effort and often can be verbally described

nondeclarative

does not require conscious effort and often cannot be verbally described

retrieval cue

stimulus for remembering

flashbulb memories

vivid episodic memories for circumstances in which people first learned of a surprising and consequential or emotionally arousing event

encoding failure

failure to precess information into memory

retrograde amnesia

loss of memory from the point of some injury or trauma backwards, or loss of memory for the past

anterograde amnesia

loss of memory from the point of injury or trauma forward, or the inability to form new long-term memories

concepts

ideas that represent a class or category of objects, events, or activities

formal concepts

concepts that are defined by specific rules or features

natural concepts

concepts people form as a result of their experiences in the real world

prototype

a concept that closely matches the defining characteristics of that concept

schemas

mental generalizations about objects, places, events, and people

scripts

a kind of schema that involves a familiar sequence of activities

trial and error

problem-solving method in which one possible solution after another is tried until a successful one is found

algorithms

very specific, step-by-step procedures for solving certain types of problems

Intelligence

ability to learn from one’s experiences, acquire knowledge, and use resources effectively in adapting to new situations or solving problems

emotional intelligence

emphasized abilities to manage, recognize, understand, and use emotions to guide appropriate thought and action

reliability

the tendency of a test to produce the same scores again and again each time it is given to the same people

validity

the degree to which a test actually measures what it’s supposed to measure

intellectual disability

a person exhibits deficits in mental ability and adaptive behavior

IQ falls below 70

Adaptive behavior is severely deficient for a person of a particular chronological age

language

a system for combining symbols so that an unlimited number of meaningful statements can be made for the purpose of communicating with others

Piaget

theorized concepts preceded and aided development of language

Vygotsky

theorized language helps an individual develop concepts and ways to control behavior

Human Development

the ecientific study of changes that occur in people as they age from conception until death

Longitudinal design

research in which one participant or group of participants is studied over a long period of time

Cross Sectional Design

research design in which several different participant age-groups are studied at one particular point in time

Chromosome Disorders

having more or less than 23 pairs of chromosomes

Down Syndrome

an extra chromosome on the 21st pair associated with sympotoms of almond-shpaed, wide-set eyes, intellectual disability, and increased risk of organ failure

Klinefelter Syndrome

an extra sex chromosome on the 23rd pair (XXY) is associated with a male with reduced masculine characteristics

Turner Syndrome

a missing X chromosome from the XX pair resulting in one X and associated with females that are very short, infertile, and sexually underdeveloped

Monozygotic Twins: Identical Twins

formed with one zygote splits into two separate masses of cells, each of which develops into a separate embryo

Dizygotic Twins: Faternal Twins

occur when two eggs get fertilized by two different sperm, resulting in the development of two zygotes in the uterus at the same time

Teratogenic Agent

effect on development for babies

Infant Relexes

grasping, moro (startle), rooting, stepping, and sucking

Motor Development for Babies

tremendous development from birth to age 2

Brain Development

the infant brain consists of more than 100 billion neurons

development involves synaptic pruning: unused synaptic connections and nerve cells cleared away to make way for functioning connections and cells

Jean Piaget

developed a four-stage theory of cognitive development based on observation of infants and children

Assimilation

the process of understanding new things in terms of schemas they already possess

Accommodation

the process of altering or adjusting old schemas to fit new information and experiences

Sensorimotor

Birth - 2 years old

devlope object permenance and the understanding that concepts and mental images reperesent obejects, people, and events

Preoperational

2-7 years old

mentally represent and refer to objects and events with words or pictures and they can pretend

However they can’t conserve, logically reason, or simultaneously many characteristics of an object

Concrete Operations

7-12 years old

able to conserve, reverse their thinking and classify objects in terms of their many characteristics. they can also think logically and understand analogies but only about concrete events

Formal Operations

12 years to adulthood

abstract reasoning about hypothetical events or situations, think about logical possibilities

Vygotsky’s Theory

emphasized the role of others and the importance of social and cultural interaction in cognitive development

Scaffolding

under Vygotsky’s Theory; process in which a more skilled learner gives help to a less skilled learner, then reduces the amount of help as the less skilled learner becomes more capable

Temperament

behavioral characteristics that are fairly well established at birth

easy: regular, adaptable, and happy

difficult: irregular, nonadaptable, and irritable

slow to warm up: need to adjust gradually to change

Attachment

the emotional bond between an infant and the primary caregiver

stranger anxiety

separation anxiety

Secure Attachment Style

willing to explore; upset when mother departs, but easily soothed upon return

Avoidant Attachment Style

unattached; explores without “touching base”

Ambivalent Attachment Style

insecurly attached; upset when mother leaves and then angry with mother upon her return

Disorganized-disoriented

insecurely atttached and sometimes abused or neglected; child seems fearful, dazed, and depressed

Erikson’s Theory on Development

first four of eight stages or crisis of development occur in infancy and childhood; social interactions are the most important factor