Psych Unit 1 Part 1 & 2

good luck

Psychology

The study of behavior and mental processes of humans and other animals

Behaviorist Perspective / Learning perspective

Observable and measurable behavior should only be studied ; Learned and observable behaviors

Psychodynamic Perspective

Unconscious forces and early childhood experiences affect our behavior and mental processes

Biological Perspective

Examine how biological and physiological processes impact behavior and mental process

Evolutionary Perspective

Natural selection ; The study of how behavioirs and mental processes present in the species today exist because of natural selection

Humanistic Perspective

Drive of personal growth and self-actualization impact behavior and mental process; how you see yourself

Cognitive Perspective

Interpretation of situations and mental process impact behavioral and mental processes ; Thinking, perceiving, learning, communication, solving problems

Social-Cultural Perspective

How behavior and thinking vary according across situations and cultures

Biopsychosocial Approach

Understanding behavior and mental processes from three key viewpoints

Biopsychosocial Perspective

Biological - Genes and Nutrition
Psychological - Emotions and Behaviors
Social - Stress, Trauma, and Environment

Positive Psychology

The scientific study of human flourishing ; studying people who don’t have depression, etc. to help everyone

Developmental Psychology

(Field of Psychology) The study of how our behaviors and mental processes changes as we age ; Childhood → Adolescent → Lifespan

Nature vs. Nurture Debate

Nature

-Behaviors and Mental processes are in born or innate

-Biological

-Genetics Influence

Nature vs. Nurture Debate

Nurture

-Behaviors and Mental process are result of the environment or experiences

-Learned behaviors

-Observed behaviors

Personality Psychology

(Field of Psychology) The enduring distinctive, and unique characters/traits of an individual

Industrial Organizational Psychology (I/O) Psychology

(Field of Psychology) The study of the relationship between people and our work environments. ; How well people work in school or at work or smth

Counseling Psychology

• Help people to cope with adjustments and crises

• Challenges related to work, school, family, and relationships

• Therapy and counseling

• ur classic therapist

Clinical Psychologist

• Assess, Diagnose, and treat mental, emotional, emotional, and behavioral disorders

• Administer and interpret psychological test

• Therapy and counseling

• May conduct research

• More medical

Psychiatry

Medical specialty devoted to the diagnosis, prevention, and treatment of deleterious (causing harm or damage) mental conditions. Related to: Mood, behavior, cognition, perception, and emotion. (like schizophrenia????)

Educational Psychology

the study of how humans learn and retain knowledge, primarily in educational settings like classrooms

Mean

Mathematical average of a set of numbers. ; Add the scores and divide by the number (N) of scores.

Median

Middle score in a distribution. ; Arrange scored from highest to lowest with half of the data above and half below this number.

Mode

Most frequently occurring data point in a distribution

Range

Difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution. ; Subtract the lowest from the highest

Experimental Research

• Only method used to determine cause and effect

Independent Variable (IV)

“If” factor ; factor being manipulated/changed

Dependent Variable (DV)

“Then” factor ; Outcome measured ; the factor changing BECAUSE of the Independent variable

Confounding variables

Variables controlled so do not influence the study ; control group ; the normal one

Descriptive statistics

• Data used to measure and describe a population or data set

• Used measures of central tendency (mean, median and mode)

• Use measures of variation (range and standard deviation)

Inferential statistics

• examine relationships between variables in sample

• Data that allow us to infer/predict trends based on data taken from a sample of a population

Population

the entire group to be studied

Random Sample

everyone in the population has an equal chance of being selected

Representative Sample

sub groups in the population are represented proportionally ; EX: Surveys that select individuals from every age, race, and socio-economic group

Convenience Sample

• Selection of participants that is not random or systematic rather what is easiest available

• Cannot be used to generalized results

• Could results from Sampling Bias

• EX: asking acquaintances, and surveying people in a mall, on the street, and in other crowded locations.

what does the experimental group receive/do not receive?

the IV (independent variable)

What does the Control group receive/do not receive?

• Does NOT receive IV ; comparison group ; normal group

Random Assignment

• Assigning subjects randomly to experimental and control groups

• Reduces third variable problem

Skewed distribution

few high incomes (outliers) make the mean deceptively high

Standard Deviation

• A computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score

• Meaning of the Mean

• Shows whether scores are parked together (similar) or dispersed (varied).

• Low standard deviation indicated that the data points tend to be close to the mean of the data set.

• How far off something is

• lower the number the more similar

• higher the number the more different

Statistical Significance

• Statistical statement of how likely it is that a result occurred by chance

• Typically reported as a ‘p’ value. A ‘p’ value of .05 or less means that it is 95% likely the results did not occur by chance

• The claim that a set of observed data are not the result of chance but can instead be attributed to a specific cause

Third Variable Problem

confounding variable affects both variables but they are not related

Placebo Effect

Wen subjects react because of expectations alone not the treatment

Placebo

fake treatment given to subject in control group ; EX: fake pill

Self-report Bias

A possible methodology problem if research relies on participants descriptions of thoughts, feelings, or behaviors rather than direct observation and measurements

ex: practically a guess of “uuhhh 9 ig??”

Social Desirability Bias

Tendency for participants to attempt to present themselves in a favorable manner

EX: to appease someone based on their preferences

Single-Blind Study

Participants do not know which group they are assigned in

Double-Blind study

Both participants and experiments do not know which group subjects are assigned

Experimenter Bias

Experimenters to believe, certify, and publish data that agree with their expectations for the outcome of an experiment, and to disbelieve, discard, or downgrade the corresponding weightings for data.

simplified ex: having a big ass ego / being delusional

Experimental Method

the systematic procedures and steps followed in a research study to conduct experiments, gather data, and analyze results

Hypothesis

• Predictions about behavior that can be tested

• The best possible explanation for what you have observed, must be a testable hypothesis

Theory

• Rational type of abstract thinking about a phenomenon, or the results of such thinking

• An explanation using an intergrades set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events

Hindsight Bias

• The tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that we would have foreseen it.

• EX: “I knew that would happen.”

• practically lying atp bruh to look cool or wtv

Overconfidence

• The tendency to think we know more than we do

• having a ego bru

False Consensus Effect

• The tendency to assure one’s once opinions, briefs, attributes, or behaviors are more widely shared than is actually the case.

• practically overexaggrations

Falsifiable

The logical possibility that a hypothesis or theory can be shown false by an observation or an experiment

Qualitative Research

• Research methods that provides descriptive data

• the quality of something

Quantitative Research

• Research methods measuring variables using a numerical system

• How much of something or the amount

Case study

• In depth study of a person or small group

• PRO: unique cases, a lot of information gathered

• CON: inability to generalize to large population; observer bias

Survey

• Method collecting self-reported attitudes, opinions, behaviors - best use with likert-scale

• PRO: cheap, quick, and large number of people

• CON: inaccuracy of self-reports; biased wording of questions

• “trust me bro”

Psychological tests

• Procedures designed assess specific traits, intellect, behaviors

• PRO: reliable information that can predict behavior

• CON: difficult to create; question bias

Naturalistic Observation

• Subjects in their own environment with no interaction from researcher

• PRO: spontaneous behavior

• CON: observer bias; no control or repeats

Lab Obervation

• Subjects observed in setting where researchers have some control

• PRO: use of specialized equipment

• CON: subjects know they are being watched; observer bias

Meta-Analysis

• Synthesizing the results of multiple studies of a similar research question or topic

• Method allows for compint a combined size effect across of all of the studies

  • Effect size - how meaningful the relationship between variables or the difference between groups; practical significance of research finding

• Benefit allows small studies to be combined into one larger study

Positive correlation

• two sets of data (variables) tend to rise or fall together

• direct relationship

• .01 → +1.0

Negative Correlation

• One set of data (variable) rises while the other falls.

• Indirect relationship

• -.01 → -1.0

No correlation

Scatter plot

uses dots to represent values for two different numeric variables

Correlational research

A measure of the extent which two factors vary together and how well each factor predicts change in the other

• finding out the correlation coefficient

Correlation Coefficient

• 0 = no relationship

• -1 or +1 perfect

• Negative correlation - indirect relationship

• Positive correlation - direct relationship

Peer review

Research proposal, results, articles, journals,

• having other people look over your stuff

Normal curve

Central Tendency

Mean, Median, Mode, (maybe Range)

Likert-scale

a rating scale used to measure survey participants' opinions, attitudes, motivations, and more

Regression toward the mean

the tendency of results that are extreme by chance on first measurement—i.e. extremely higher or lower than average—to move closer to the average when measured a second time.

Directionality Problem

A situation where it is known that two variables are related but it is not known which is the cause and which is the effect

Illusory Correlations

• Perceiving a relationship where non exists

• Or perceiving a stronger-than-actual relationship

• basically what you think a superstition is

APA Ethical Guidelines

• Informed Consent given by someone 18 or older

• Informed Assent given by a minor

• Confidentiality ; Anonymity

• Deception only acceptable when benefits outweighs the risk and subject must be debriefed at the end.

• Debriefing about the purpose of study and finding

• Confederates - research actors

Replication

Reproducing a study to see if you get the same results

APA with animals

• Treat animals humanely

• Minimize the animals pain and discomfort

• Must serve clear scientific purpose

Institutional Review Board (IRB)

Establishes ethical guidelines for human and animal research

Sampling bias

• occurs when some members of a population are systematically more likely to be selected in a sample than others

• somewhat like a preference

Effect size

How meaningful the relationship between variables or the difference between groups; practical significance of research findings

Causation vs. Relationship

Operational Definition

A carefully worded statement of the exact procedures used in a research study, so study can be replicated

Generalizability

the measure of how useful the results of a study are for a larger group of people or situations

Histogram

a chart that plots the distribution of a numeric variable's values as a series of bars ; another type of graph

Bimodal Distribution

A type of distribution characterized by two distinct peaks.

Milgram’s Study

• The set-up and outcome caused the APA to revise their guidelines

• He proves that humans would harm another person at the directive of an authority fire

Reliability

The consistency of the dinging or results of a psychology research study

Validity

Assumes that the test in question measures precisely what it aims to measure, meaning the data collected is accurate and represents some truth compared to others outside of the study

Simple: the quantity or quality of something being true