Chapter 10: Human Development

longitudinal design

when the same individuals are repeatedly observed and tested over time

cross-sectional design

when groups of participants of different ages are observed and compared at one and the same time

2 months

can raise head to 45 degrees

2.8 months

roll over

4 months

sit with support

5.5 months

sit without support

5.8 months

stand holding on to something

7.6 months

pull self to standing position

9.2 months

walk holding on to furniture

10 months

crawl and creep

11.5 months

stand alone

12.1 months

walk without assistance

Piaget’s sensorimotor stage

birth to age 2; they can do a small range of motions, they gain object permanence at this stage

Piaget’s preoperational stage

age 2 to age 7; children cannot think of others because of their egocentrism; their attention is caught by visually striking things because of centration; when children think glasses that are different shapes hold different amounts of liquid even though they can hold the same amount of liquid

Piaget’s concrete operations stage

age 7 to age 11; they master conservation (the things with the liquid in the glasses); they start to engage in logical thinking

Piaget’s formal operations stage

age 11 and on; thinking becomes abstract and they can use deductive reasoning to make logical conclusions

Renée Baillargeon

her research suggests that infants as young as 3 months old have already developed aspects of object permanence

Lev Vygotsky

he argued that children develop through a process of internalization: they absorb knowledge from their social context that has a major impact on how cognition unfolds over time

phoneme

the smallest unit of sound that can distinguish one word from another

morpheme

the smallest unit of a word that carries meaning

lexical meaning

the dictionary definition of a word

syntax

the arrangement of words in sentences

semantics

study of the meaning of words

phonology

the study of the sounds that are put together to form words

child-directed speech

how adults speak to babies and young children, usually with a high-pitched intonation

overregularization

it is like when kids add -ed to all verbs that they say in past tense

Erikson’s first psychosocial stage

trust vs mistrust; basic sense of safety/insecurity, anxiety

Erikson’s second psychosocial stage

autonomy vs self-doubt; feeling able to control their body/feeling inadequate for controlling things

Erikson’s third psychosocial stage

initiative vs guilt; confidence in oneself as an initiator/feelings of lack of self-worth

Erikson’s fourth psychosocial stage

competence vs inferiority; adequacy in basic social and intellectual skills/lack of self-confidence, feelings of failure

Erikson’s fifth psychosocial stage

identity vs role confusion; comfortable sense of self as a person/unclear sense of self

Erikson’s sixth psychosocial stage

intimacy vs isolation; capacity for closeness and commitment to another/feeling of aloneness, denial of need for closeness

Erikson’s seventh psychosocial stage

generativity vs stagnation; focus of concern beyond oneself to family, society, future generations/self-indulgent concerns, lack of future orientation

Erikson’s eighth psychosocial stage

ego integrity vs despair; sense of wholeness, basic satisfaction with life/feelings of futility, disappointment

Jerome Kagan

he has demonstrated that some infants are born shy and others are born bold (temperament)

John Bowlby

suggested that infants and adults are biologically predisposed to form attachments

Mary Ainsworth

the strange situation test to find our which attachment style the infant had with their caregiver

Harry Harlow

monkeys and contact comfort

Eleanor Maccoby

she believed parents do not merely stamp gender roles into their children; instead she believes that many of the differences in gender behavior among children are the results of peer relationships

Kohlberg’s first stage of moral reasoning

pleasure/pain orientation; to avoid pain or not to get caught

Kohlberg’s second stage of moral reasoning

cost-benefit orientation/reciprocity/an eye for an eye; to get rewards

Kohlberg’s third stage of moral reasoning

good-child orientation; to gain acceptance and avoid disapproval

Kohlberg’s fourth stage of moral reasoning

law and order orientation; to follow rules, avoid censure by authorities

Kohlberg’s fifth stage of moral reasoning

social contract orientation; to promote the society’s welfare

Kohlberg’s sixth stage of moral reasoning

ethical principle orientation; to achieve justice and avoid self-condemnation

Kohlberg’s seventh stage of moral reasoning

cosmic orientation; to be true to universal principles and feel oneself part of a cosmic direction that transcends social norms

Carol Gilligan

she pointed out that Kohlberg’s original work was developed from observation only of boys; she thought that women’s moral development is based on a standard of caring for others and progresses to a stage of self-realization, while men base their reasoning on a standard of justice