BILD 1 Midterm 1, BILD 1 Midterm 2, BILD 1 Final COOPER UCSD

Characteristics of Life

(ROGERRE) Repro Order Growth Evolution Regulation Response Energy

What is needed for a recessive X-linked trait to be expressed?

1) female needs 2 copies of the allele (homozygous)

2) male needs 1 copy of the allele (hemizygous) (thus more common in males)

first law of thermodynamics

energy in the universe is constant

silent mutations

different nucleotide in DNA but same amino acid in protein

Missence Mutation

when a point mutation results in substituting one amino acid for another

nonsense mutation

changes a normal codon into a stop codon

Biological organization

atom, molecule, cell, tissue, organ, organ system, organism, population, community, ecosystem, biosphere

second law of thermodynamics

energy conversions increase the disorder of the universe

Law of Segregation

Mendel's law that states that the pairs of homologous chromosomes separate in meiosis so that only one chromosome from each pair is present in each gamete

endergonic

takes work

law of independent assortment

Two or more genes assort independently—that is, each pair of alleles segregates independently of any other pair during gamete formation. (only applies to genes on different chromosomes)

Incomplete Dominance

Phenotype of heterozygous is intermediate between the homozygous dominant and recessive (blended)

Codominance

Phenotype is affected by two different alleles in separate and distinguishable ways

exergonic

releases heat or light

Most Common Elements in Human Body

C, H, N, O

building chemical bonds

inc potential/chemical/stored energy

Nondisjunction (and result)

Error in meiosis in which homologous chromosomes fail to separate.

Result: 1 gamete receives 2 of the same type of chromosome and the other receives no copy

breaking chemical bonds

inc kinetic energy

Trace Elements in Human Body

Calcium, Phosphorous, Potassium, Sulfur, Sodium, Chlorine, Magnesium

Epistasis

A type of gene interaction in which one gene alters the phenotypic effects of another gene that is independently inherited.

anabolic

simple to complex substances (building up)

Ions

Atoms with more/less electrons than protons

catabolic

complex to simple substances (breaking down)

Valence Electrons

- Chemical behavior of an atom is determined by its valence electrons

- First shell: 2 electrons

- Second shell: 8 electrons

Helicase

Enzymes that untwist the double helix at the replication forks

energy coupling

use of an exergonic process to drive an endergonic one

ATP

phosphate groups, sugar, nitrogenous base

hydrolyze to get ADP

phosphates don't want to be next to each other so neg charges repel each other and are held by a covalent bond; when this bond breaks, it releases a ton of energy

Solution

liquid that is a homogenous mixture of substances

enzyme

catalytic protein

optimum activity at 37*C (body temp) and a pH around neutrality

Single strand binding proteins

hold DNA strands apart

Solute

Substance that is dissolved

catalyst

chemical agent that speeds up a reaction w/o being consumed

Solvent

Dissolving agent (usually water)

cellular respiration

exergonic

transfers energy from the bonds in glucose to ATP

produces 30-38 ATP from each glucose

40% efficient, other 60% is heat that maintains the body temp

Semi conservative replication

Each half of an original DNA molecule serves as a template for a new strand, and the two new DNA molecules each have one old and one new strand.

Hydrophilic

High affinity for water (polar, N, O)

oxidation

loses electrons, or is oxidized

getting smaller

Topoisomerase

A protein that functions in DNA replication, helping to relieve strain in the double helix ahead of the replication fork by twisting and rejoining DNA strands

What aspects of genomes and cell structure makes DNA replication more complicated in eukaryotes than prokaryotes?

- circular vs. linear DNA

- prokaryotes don't have a nucleus

- prokaryotes have 1 chromosome; humans have 46

- DNA in eukaryotes is tightly condensed instead of floating around

- one vs. many origins of replication

RNA primer

short segment of RNA used to initiate synthesis of a new strand of DNA during replication

DNA polymerase require a primer to which they can add nucleotides

reduction

gains electrons, or is reduced (amount of positive charge is reduced)

Hydrophobic

No affinity for water (nonpolar, C, H)

Primase

makes a short RNA molecule (~10 base pairs) that creates a small double stranded section

cellular respiration stages (4)

1. glycolysis

2. pyruvate => Acetyl CoA

3. citric acid cycle (aka Krebs)

4. oxidative phosphorylation (aka electron transport chain)

glycolysis

where: cytosol

inputs: glucose, 2 ATP

Substrate level phosphorylation

outputs: 2 pyruvate, 4 ATP, 2 NADH

DNA polymerase

An enzyme that catalyzes the synthesis of new DNA at replication fork

DNA ligase

Joins DNA together to make one continuous strand

krebs cycle

where: mitochondria

inputs: 2 pyruvate - 2 CoA

Substrate level phosphorylation

outputs: 6 CO2 + 2 ATP + 8 NADH (2 FADH2)

Okazaki fragments

Small fragments of DNA produced on the lagging strand during DNA replication, joined later by DNA ligase to form a complete strand.

DNA polymerase I

replaces RNA primer with DNA

electron transport chain

where: inner mitochondrial membrane

inputs: NADH, FADH2, O2

outputs: Lots of ATP, H2O

DNA polymerase III

makes new DNA strand by adding nucleotides one at a time to the 3' end

fermentation

anaerobic energy-generating process

alcohol: uses yeast to produce ethanol

lactic acid: converts pyruvate to lactate (or lactic acid); can only use for short periods of time

autotrophs

living things that make their own food w/o using organic molecules derived from any other living thing

photoautotrophs use light to produce

take energy and sunlight and convert it to chemical energy stored in organic molecules

ex: most plants, algae, and other protists, some prokaryotes

Strength of Bonds

Hydrogen

Ionic

Covalent

color is a light wave

lowest is purple, highest is red

white reflects all light

black absorbs all color

Lipids

- Water insoluble (long hydrocarbon chains)

- Important in energy storage

- Contain twice as much energy as a polysaccharide

- Made of glycerol and fatty acids

pigments in chloroplasts

- absorb light (capturing solar power)

- causing release of electrons which jump to a higher energy level (excited) then drop back down (ground) whilst releasing excess energy

- photon excites a chlorophyll, excites an electron, releases wavelengths

Photosystem II

Photon will hit

Get passed from chlorophyll to chlorophyll

Will funnel into one center chlorophyl

Goes into one electron

Photosystem II gives its electron to the transport chain and then its given to photosystem I

Photosystem needs a new electron

Gets a water molecule and gets an electron

Oxygen → byproduct

Unsaturated Fats

- Double bond in one of the hydrocarbon chains

- Doubles bonds do not allow for the max number of hydrogens to bond to the carbon

- Liquid at room temperature

Histones

Responsible for the first level of DNA packing in chromatin

Saturated Fats

- Do not have double bonds and are complete "saturated (with hydrogens)"

- Packs together more tightly (no bend)

-Solid at room temp

calvin cycle

RUBISCO

converting CO2 to sugars

input: CO2, ATP, NAPDH

output: sugars

plant stomata

pores on the bottom of plant leaves that are open to air

in hot climates, CR4 and CAM close this off to reduce water loss

C4 use spatial separation of steps to inc CO2

CAM use temportal (time) separation of steps to inc CO2

Phospholipids

-Structurally similar to fats

- Hydrophilic heads: Contact with water of environment and internal part of the cell

- Hydrophobic tails: Band in the center of the bilayer

- Polar/phosphate head and 2 non polar fatty acid chains

- Makes up cell membrane

- Amphipathic

gene

A DNA sequence that is expressed to form a functional product: either RNA or polypeptide

asexual reproduction

offspring identical to original, inherit all genes from one parent

Steroids

- Lipids composed of 4

fused rings

- Hormones

- Testosterone and Estradiol

Leading strand

The new continuous complementary DNA strand synthesized along the template strand in the mandatory 5' to 3' direction.

Lagging strand

A discontinuously synthesized DNA strand that elongates by means of Okazaki fragments (joined together by DNA ligase), each synthesized in a 5' to 3' direction away from the replication fork.

Cholesterol

- Example of a steroid that plays significant role in structure of cell membrane

- 4 rings

- LDL and HDL

sexual reproduction

offspring similar to parents, but show some variation

inherit unique sets of genes from two parents

Gene expression

The process by which DNA directs protein synthesis, includes two stages: transcription and translation

chromosomes

each chromosome appears as two sister chromatids, containing identical DNA molecules

chromatids are connected, but once they split, they are no longer chromatids and are two indiv chromosomes

Transcription +product

Synthesis of RNA using information in DNA

Produces mRNA

Dehydration Reaction

Build polymer out of monomer subunits and produces water

cell cycle

G0: period of no growth, cell not actively progressing into mitosis

G1: growth

S: DNA synthesis

G2: growth

M: splitting

Translation +site

Synthesis of a polypeptide using the information in the mRNA

Ribosomes are the site (ribosomes found on rough ER and in the cytoplasm)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jnP8_1eIfgo

What separates transcription and translation in eukaryotic cells?

The nuclear envelope

interphase

cytoplasmic contents double

in nucleus, chromosomes duplicate during the S phase (can't visibly see chromosomes yet)

Monomer of nucleic acids

Nucleotides

mitosis prophase

see chromosomes/two sister chromatids

start to see cytoskeleton elements responsible for pulling cells apart (centrosomes)

Carbohydrates

- Sugar (-ose) = simple (monomer)

- Starches = complex (polymer)

mitosis prometaphase

break apart nuclear membrane (no nucleus)

microtubules connect to individual chromosomes through kinetochore

Sugar monomers (Monosaccharides)

- Can be linked together to form polysaccharides

- CH2O

mitosis metaphase

connected chromosomes all line up on plate

Primary transcript

The initial RNA transcript from any gene prior to processing

Glucose

- Blood sugar

- Essential energy source

Central dogma

Concept that cells are governed by a cellular chain of command:

DNA → RNA → Protein

mitosis anaphase

separation (kinetochore eats at microtubule)

mitosis telophase

reformation of new nuclear membranes

Fructose

- Sweetest of sugars

- Fruit

mitosis cytokinesis

splitting of cells

animals have a ring splitting the cells (cleavage furrow)

plants grow in size and then are split by cell wall

Template strand

Provides a template for ordering the sequence of complementary nucleotides in an RNA transcript

will be 3' to 5'

Codon

mRNA base triplets that provides genetic code information for a particular amino acid (position on polypeptide)

Substrate Level Phosphorylation

When an enzyme transfers a phosphate group from a substrate molecule.

How many condons are there?

64

61 for amino acids and 3 are stop signals to end translation

kinetic energy

the energy an object has due to its motion

potential energy

stored energy

What are the 3 stages of transcription?

1) Initiation

2) Elongation

3) Termination