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Alsace and Lorraine
Bismarck’s first concern was to keep France - bitter over defeat and loss of A and L - diplomatically isolated and w/o allies
second concern: threat to peace posed by enormous multinational empires Austria Hungary and RUssia part southeastern EUro where waning strength of Ottoman Empire created threatening power vacuum in disputed border territories of Balkans
William (Wilhelm) II
(1890) new emperor William (Wilhelm) II incautiously dismissed Bismarck part cus disagreed w/chancellor’s friendly policy toward Russia
under William (Wilhelm) II, Bismarsk’s alliance plan unravel
Germany refused renew nonaggression pact w/Russia the centerpiece of Bismarck’s system in spite Russian willingness to do so, move promoted long-isolated republican France to court absolute Russia offering loans, arms, and support ; euro divided two blocks
Triple Alliance
alliance of Austria, Germany, Italy. Italy left alliance when war broke out 1914 on grounds that Austria had launched war of aggression
Dual Alliance
Italy faced increasingly hostile Dual Alliance of Russia and France
Anglo-French Entente
Britain improved often-strained relations w/USA concluded alliance w/Japan (1902) and allied w/France ij Anglo-French Entente of 1903 which settled all outstanding colonial disputes between Britain and France
First Moroccan Crisis
result of First Moroccan Crisis of 1905 was something diplomatic revolution
Britain, France, Russia and even US began to see Germany as potential threat
(same time) German leaders began see sinister plots to encircle Germany and block its dev as world power
Triple Entente
alliance of Great Britain, France, Russia prior to and during world war 1
Russa (1907) battered by disastrous war w/Japan and revolution of 1905 agreed settle quarrels w/in GB in Persia and Central Aisa and signed Anglo-Russian Agreement laying foundation
Dreadnoughts
cus of great size and power heightened international tensions
Militarism
widespread Militarism (popular approval of military institutions and their values) and nationalism encouraged leaders and citizens alike to see international relation as arena for testing of national power w/war if necessary
Universal conscription
in Germany, France, Italy, Austria-Hungary, and Russia only Britain still relied on volunteer army exposed thousands young men each year to military culture and discipline
Nationalism
many believed war glorious, manly, and heroic
support for military values closely linked to growing sense of popular Nationalism notion that one’s country was superior to all others
drove spiraling arms race and struggle over colonies
much of populations ready for war
Archduke Francis (Franz) Ferdinand
heir to Austro-Hungarian throne
assassinated by Serbian revolutionaries during state visit to Bosnian capital of Sarajevo
Gavrilo Princip
after series failed attempts bomb archduke’s motorcade, Gavrilo Princip, fanatical ember of radical group Blank hand short archduke and wife Sophie in automobile
Blank hand
radical group
“powder keg of Europe”
in early years l=of twentieth century, war in Balkans “powder keg of Europe” seemed inevitable
* reasons: (1900-1914) Western powers successfully forced Ottoman ruler give up European territories
Serbs, Bulgarians, Albanians, otter now sought estab independent nation staes and ethnic nationalism inspired by changing states boundaries destroying Ottoman Empire and threating Austria- Hungary
Bosnia and Herzegovina
to block Serbian expansion, Austria (1908) annexed territories of Bosnia and Herzegovina
southern part of Austro-Hungarian Empire now included even larger Serbian population
First/Second Balkan Wars
(first, 1912): Serbia joined Greece and Bulgaria to attack Ottoman Empire and quarreled w/Bulgaria spoils of victory
(second, 1913): Bulgaria attacked former allies, Austria intervened and forced Serbia give up Albania, (post centuries) nationalism finally destroyed Ottoman Empire Euro
encouraged by success against Ottomans, Balkans nationalist increased demands for freedom from Austria-Hungary, dismaying leaders of multinational empire
Ultimatum
(July 23) Austria-Hungary gave unconditonal ultimatum that could violate Serbian sovereignty
Thobald von Bethmann-Hollweg
chancellor of Emperor Willian II realized war b/w Austria and Russia likely, for resurgent Russia wouldn’t stand by and watch Austrians crush Serbs
“blank check”
with hoped German chancellor sent telegram to Austria-Hungary which promised Germany “faithfully stand by” its ally in case of war
this “blank check” unconditional support encouraged prowar faction in Vienna to take hard line against Serbs at time when moderation might still have limited crisis
Schlieffen Plan
failed German plan calling for lightning attack through neutral Belgium and quick defeat of France before turning on Russia
Total war
war which distinctions between the soldiers on the battlefield and civilians at home are blurred and where the gov plans and controls economic and social life in order to supply armies at front w/supplies and weapons
Erich Ludendorff
termed word total war
German general
Battle of the Marne
(sep 6) French attacked gap in German line at Battle of the Marne
(3 days) France threw everything into attack
one point: French gov desperately requisitioned all taxis of Paris to rush revenues to front
finally: Germans feels back and France miraculously saved
Trench warfare
type if fighting used in World War I behind rows of trenches, mines, and barbed wire; cost in lives staggering and gains in territory minimal
Verdun
(1916) unsuccessful German campaign against Verdun cost some 100000 lives on both sides and ended w/combatants in original positions
results in (1917) little better
hard fought battles all fronts: million young men wounded or died no read gain
Battle of the Somme
great British offensive overtake in summer 9116) northern France exemplified horrors of trench warfare
battle began weeklong heavy artillery bombardment on German lines, intended cut barbed wire fortifications, decimate enemy trenches and prevent Germans from making effective defense
(seven days and nights) British artillery fired nonstop on German lines expending 3 million shells
“over the top”
(July 1) British went “over the top” climbing out of trenches and moving into no-man’s land toward German lines, dug into series of ridges about half mile away
Dugouts
Germans fled here
underground shelters dug deep into trenches where suffered from lack of water, food or sleep
but survived
Battles of Tannenberg
Germans won major victories repulsing Russian attacks at Battles of Tannenberg at Masurian Lakes in Aug and Sep 1914
Battle of Gallipoli
(1915) British forces tried and failed take Dardanelles and Constantinople from Ottoman turks
invasion force pinned down beaches ad ten month long battle cost Ottoman 300000 and British 26500 men killed, wounded, or missing
Hussein ibn-Ali
British more successful at inciting Arabs to revolt against Ottoman rulers
bargained w/foremost Arab leader Hussein ibn-Ali, cheif magistrate of Mecca, holiest city in Muslim world
managed in 1915 to win vague British commitments for independent Arab kingdoms
(1916) rebelled against Turks claiming himself king of Arabs
T.E. Lawrence
Hussein aided by British liaison officer T.E. Lawrence who 1917 helped lead Arab soldiers in successful guerrilla war against Turks on Arabian peninsula
British Commonwealth
soldiers from commonwealth embers Canada, Australia, and New Zealand fought with British; those Australia and New Zealand fought w/particular distinction in failed allied assault on Gallipoli
Lusitania
May 1915: German submarine sank British passenger liner Lusitania claiming more 1000 lives among them 139 US citizens
pres Woodrow Wilson protested vigorously using tragedy to incite America public opiniion against Germans
to avoid certain war with United States, Germany halted submarine warfare for almost two years
Rationing
new gov ministries mobilized soldiers and araments estab rationing programs and provided care for war widows and wounded veterans
censorship offices controlled war use
War Raw Materials Board
(soon as war began) Jewish Industrialist Walter Ratheau conviced gov to set up War Raw Materials Board to ration and substitutes raw mareials
* every useful material from foreign oil to barnyard manure invetoried and rationed
board launched successful attempts to produce substitues such as synthetic rubber and nitartes for scarce war supples
food rationed in accordance physical needs
Auxiliary Service Law
following terrible Battles of Verdun and Somme (19116): German military leaders forced Reichstag accept Auxiliary Service Law which required all males between seventeen to sixty to work only at job critical to the war effort
women also worked
ppl lived on little more than 1000 calroies day
Fatherland Party
wsuport of newly formed ultraconservative Fatherland Party, generals estab military dictatorship
Hindenburg called for ultimate mobilization of total war
Germany win only “if all the treasures f sour soil that agriculture and industry can produce are used exclusively for conduct of War,, All other considerations must come second”
Ministry of Munitions
(post 1915) British Ministry of Munitions organized private industry to produce for war, allocated labor, set wages and price rates, settled labor disputes
(France) weakened parliament met w/o public oversight and courts jailed pacifists who dared criticize state
Espionage and Sedition Acts
weakened civil liberties
Labor unions
need for workers meant greater power and prestige for labor unions
unions cooperated w/war gov on workplace rules, wages, and production schedules in return for real participation in important decisions
paralled entry of socialist leaders into war gov
Easter Rising
armed republican militias took over parts Dublin and proclaimed independent Irish republic
(post week of fighting) British troops crushed rebels and executed leaders
Duma
voted to support war (RUssia’s lower house of parliament)
Rasputin
Tsarina Alexandra arbitarily dismissed loyal political advisers
turned to court fav, disreputable and unpop Rasputin who uneduc Siberian preacher who influence with tsarina rested on purported ability to heal Alexis (her only son) from hemophilia
Petrograd
(march) violent street demonstrations broke out in Petrograd (St.Peterburg) spread to factories and engulfed city
tsar ordered army to open fire n protesters, but soliders refused shoot and joined revolutionary crowd instead
Duma declared provisional gov (March 12, 1917)
(3 days later) Nicholas abdicated
February Revolution
unplanned uprisings accompanied by violent street demonstrations begun March 1917 (old calendar Feb) in Petrograd, Russia, that led to abdication of tsar and estab of provisional gov
Kerensky
new gov formed May (1919) included fiery agrarian socialist Alexander Kerensky who became prime minister July
he refused confiscate large landholdings and give them to peasants fearing such drastic action complete disintegration of Russia’s peasant army
for patriotic Kerensky and other moderate socialists; continuation of war = national duty
Provisional government
human suffering and war weariness grew testing limited strength of Provisional government
seeing self as true grassroots product product of revolutionary democracy, SOviet acted as parallel gov
issued own radical orders, weakening authority of Professional revolutionaries
Petrograd Soviet
huge fluctuating mass meeting of two to three thousand workers, soldiers, and socialist intellectuals modeled on revolutionary soviet of 1905
Professional revolutionaries
Lenin believed possibility of revolution determined more by human leadership than historical laws
called for highly disciplined workers’ party strictly controlled by small, dedicated elite of intellectuals and professional revolutionaries
elite not stop until revolution brought to power
Bolsheviks/Mensheviks
Russian Marxists split into two rival factions
Bolsheviks: Lenin’s radical revolutionary party of Marxist socialism which successfully installed dictatorial socialist regime in Russia, “majority group”
Mensheviks: Lenin’s opps “minority group”
Lenin kept Bolsheviks name even tho only tenuous majority of single vote for propaganda reasons and they became revolutionary party he wanted; tough, disciplined, led from above
“Peace, Land, and Bread”
Lenin’s promise of “Peace, Land, and Bread” spoke to expectations of suffering soldiers, peasants, and workers and earned Bolsheviks substantial popular support
moment for revolution at hand
Leon Trotsky
Lenin’s supporter (1879-1940), spellbinding revolutionary orator and radical Marxist, brilliantly executed Bolshevik seizure of power
Constituent Assembly
Bolsheviks proclaimed their regime “provisional workers’ and peasants’ gov” promising that freely elected Constituent Assembly would draw up new constitution
Socialist Revolutionary Party
(nov) Bolsheviks won only 23% of elected delegates
Socialist Revolutionary Party (peasants party) had clear plurality with about 40% of vote
(after constituent assembly met one day) Bolshevik soldiers acting under Lenin’s orders disbanded it
(Jan 1918) Lenin moved to estab one party state
Treaty of Brest-Litovsk
Peace treaty signed March 1918 between Central Powers and Russia that ended Russian participation in WW1 and ceded Russian territories containing third of Russian empire’s populations to Central Powers
Whites/Reds
officers of old army organized so called White opposition to Bolsheviks in southern Russia, Ukraine, Siberia, and area west of Petrograd
whites came from many social groups and united only by hatred of communism and Bolsheviks - Reds
Civil War
summer 1918 Russia in full fledged Civil War
18 self proclaimed regional gov several which represented minority nationalities challenged Lenin’s gov in Moscow
(end of year) White armies were on attack
(Oct 1919) closed in on central Russia from three sides and appeared they might triumph, didn’t tho
War Communism
application of centralized state control during Russian civil war which Bolsheviks seized grain from peasants, introduced rationing, nationalized all banks and industry, and required everyone work
Cheka
Lenin and Bolsheviks set up fearsome secret police called Cheka dedicated to suppressing counter revolutionaries
during civil war Cheka imprisoned and executed w/o trail ten of thousands of supposed “class enemies”; victims included clergymen, aristocrats, wealthy Russian bourgeoise, deserters from Red Army and political opponents all kinds
tsar and fam callously executed July 1918
End Russian Civil War
( spring 1920) White armies almost completely defeated and Bolsheviks retaken much territory ceded to Germany under Treaty of Brest-Litovsk
Red Army reconquered Belarus and Ukraine both which briefly gained indepdence
building on success Bolsheviks moved westward into Polish territory but halted on outskirts of Warsaw (Aug 19200 by troops under leadership of Polish field marshal and chief of state Jozef Pilsudski
defeat halted Bolsheviks attempts spread communism further into Euro tho (1921) Red Army overran independent national gov of Caucasus
Russian civil war over and Bolsheviks won impressive victory
Spring Offesnive
(1918) Ludendorff launched extensive attack on french lines
German armies came within 35 miles of Paris but Ludenorff’’s exhausted overextended forces never broke through
Second Battle of the Marne
Ludendroff’s exhausted forces stopped July at Second Battle of the Marne where 140000 American soldiers saw action
late but massive American intervention tipped scales in favor of Allied victory
Kiel
(nov 3) sailors in Kiel mutinied and throughout northern Germany soldiers and workers estab revolutionary councils like russian soviets
Czechoslovakia
independent states of Austria, Hungary, and Czechoslovakia and larger Romania were carved out its territory
Yugoslavia
greatly expanded Serbian monarchy gained control of western Balkans and took name Yugoslavia
Weimar Republic
(Germany) moderates from Social Democratic Party and liberal allies held on to power and estab Weimar Republic - democratic gov that lead Germany for next fifteen years
success deep disappointment for Russia’s Bolsheviks who hoped more radical revolution in Germany help spread communism across European continent
Social Democratic Party
great majority of Marxist politicians in Social Democratic Party were moderates, not revolutionaries
wanted political democracy and civil liberties and favored gradual elimination of capitalism
also German nationalists appalled by prospect of civil war and revolutionary terror
moderate Social Democrats quickly came to terms with army and big business which helped prevent total national collapse
Spartacist Uprising
radical communists led by Karl Liebknecht and Rosa Luxemburg tried seize control of gov in Spartacist Uprising in Berlin (Jan 1919)
Free Corps (Freikorps)
Liebknecht and Luxemburg arrested and then brutally murdered by Free Corps (Freikorps) soldiers
(Bavaria) short-lived Bolshevik style republic violently overthrown on gov order by Free Corps (Freikorps
Kapp Putsch
nationwide strikes by leftist workers and short-lived, right0wing military takeover - Kapp Putsch - repressed by central gov
“stabbed in the back”
right-winged nationalists including new Nazi party despised gov from start
spread myth that German army had never actually lost war; instead nation “stabbed in the back” v
Treaty of Versailles
1919 peace settlement that ended war between Germany and Allied powers
Idealism
greatly strengthened by US pres Wilson’s jan 1918 peace proposal; 14 points
Woodrow Wilson/Fourteen Points
Wilson’s 1918 peace proposal calling for open diplomacy, reduction in armaments, freedom of commerce and trade, estab of League of Nations and national self-determination
National self-determination
notion that ppls shud be able choose own national gov through democratic majority rule elections and live free from outside interfernce in nation-states with clearly defined borders
Big Three
United States, great Britain, France - controlled conference
Germany, Austria-Hungary and Russia excluded tho land on negotiating table
Italy had limited role
reps from Middle East, Africa, East Asia attended as well but concerns largely ignored
Georges Clemenceau & David Lloyd George
prime ministers Lloyd George of Great Britain and Georges Clemenceau of France unenthusiastic about League
primarily concerned w/punishing Germany
Rhineland
Clemenceau gave up French demand for Rhineland buffer state in return for French military occupation of region for 15 years and formal defensive alliance w/US and Great Britain
Mandates
germany’s African and Asian colonies given to France, Britain, and Japan as League of Nations mandates or administered territories though germany’s loses within Euro relatively minor thanks to Wilson
Article 231: War Guilt Clause
article in Treaty of Versailles that declared that Germany (with Austra) solely responsible for war and had to pay reparations equal to all civilian damages caused by fighting
Henry Cabot Lodge
republican senators led by Henry Cabot Lodge believed treaty gave away Congress’s constitutional; right to declare war and demanded changes in articles
(failing health) self righteous Wilson rejected all compromise; ensured treaty would never by ratified by US and US never join League of nations
Isolationism
8 new American gospel of Isolationism represented tragic renunciation of internal responsibility
using US actions as excuse, GB too refused ratify defensive alliance w/France
France stood alone bitterly betrayed by enemies
Sykes-Picot Agreement
(1916) named after British and French diplomats
(secret accord) Britain and France agreed former Ottoman territories would be administered by Euro powers under mandate system
Mandate system
plan to allow Britain and France to administer former Ottoman territories put into place after end of First World War
Balfour Declaration
(1917) British statement that declared British support of National Home for Jewish People in Palestine
General Syrian Congress
Arab nationalist came together in Damascus as General Syrian Congress (1919) and unsuccessfully called again political independence
congress proclaimed Syria as independent kingdom; similar congress declared Iraqi independence
Mustafa Kemal
Turkey survived post war invasions
led by Mustafa Kemal(1881-1938) Turks refused acknowledge Allied dismemberment of country and gradually mounted forceful resistance
Kemal directed successful Turkish defense against British at Battle of Gallipoli and Turkish army repulsed invaders
Treaty of Lausanne
recognized territorial integrity of Turkey and solemnly abolished hated capitulations that European powers had imposed over centuries to give citizens special privileges on Ottoman Empire
Influenza epidemic
another 20 million people died in worldwide Influenza epidemic that followed war 1918
“shell shock”
countless soldiers suffered from “shell shock”
now termed post traumatic stress disorder PTSD
some soldiers received medical treatment, others accused cowardice and shirking and denied veterans’ benefits after war