POLI 212 Final Terms

Duverger’s Law

Says that plurality electoral systems tend to lead to two-party systems due to the mechanical and psychological effects. The mechanical effect happens because only parties with a plurality get seats, and the psychological effect happens when voters anticipate this effect, so they choose to vote strategically to avoid wasting a vote. This is significant because it shapes how people vote and, therefore, how they are represented. It also explains why some countries have few major parties. An example of this is the two-party dominance in the U.S..

Political Cleavage

Divisions in society that create differing political interests that influence party systems, voter behavior, and public opinion (ex: ethnicity, religion, social class). This is significant because it shapes voter patterns and coalition building. An example of this would be the differing political interests between the working class and the elite (progressive taxes, workers’ rights).

Knowledge Society/Economy

A knowledge society creates and shares knowledge that can be used to improve the overall development of its people. A knowledge economy is one where growth depends on knowledge, skills, and innovation. This is significant because it shows the importance of education in the well-being of citizens and the growth of an economy. An example of this is how Apple creates software and devices that drive U.S. economic growth.

European Integration

The process of EU countries cooperating politically, economically, socially, and legally. This is significant because it allows for reduce conflict, increases trade, and coordinates policies. An example of this is the Eurozone which allows countries to trade easily using a shared currency.

European Parliament

EU’s directly elected legislative body. This is important because it represents the citizens of the EU, passes laws, and supervises institutions. An example of this is the parliament voting on environmental regulations that affect millions of Europeans which shows its lawmaking power.

European Court of Justice

Makes sure that EU laws are applied consistently across countries. This is significant because it upholds EU law supremacy over national laws. An example of this is how their decisions allow workers to move freely across EU countries, strengthening EU integration. (also allows doe direct effect where citizens can go directly to the EU with grievances about their government)

Council of the EU

Ministers from EU countries who pass laws and coordinate policies. This is significant because it shows how national governments are represented in EU legislation. An example of this is how agriculture ministers approve common farm subsidies that affect EU-wide farming policies.

European Council

Made up of the heads of state/government and sets the EU’s agenda (long-term strategic direction) and has the final say on treaties. This is significant because they guide long-term EU policy decisions that affect millions of people across multiple countries. An example of this is the European Council making decisions on EU enlargement and determining which countries can join.

House of Commons

The UK’s lower chamber of parliament that is the main lawmaking body and checks government power. This is significant because it holds the most power in the UK system as it passes laws, controls the budget, and can remove the government through a no-confidence vote. An example of their function is during Brexit, when they voted repeatedly on withdrawl agreements deciding how and when the Uk would leave the EU.

Political Ideology

A set of beliefs about politics, society, and the economy. This is significant because it guides party policies and voter patterns/behavior. It also allows for coalition building between groups with similar values. An example of this is how conservatism values tradition and limited government while socialism values redistribution.

Plurality/FPTP

A voting system where the candidate with the most votes wins, even without a majority. This is significant because it favors large parties and may shape the party system in a country. For example, in the U.S., most congressional seats are won by Republicans or Democrats.

Proportional Representation

A voting system where seats are given based on vote share. This is significant because it allows smaller parties to recieve representations still, and therefore their legislatures are more representative of the overall population and their values. An example of this is how in the Netherlands, the threshold is so low that small parties with a tiny share of votes can win seats which makes parliament more representative.

Brexit

Brexit was the process of the UK leaving the EU. This is significant because it led to major political and economic shifts in Europe. An example of this is when the 2016 referendum triggered negotiations over trade, borders, and laws between the UK and EU.

Gerrymandering

Drawing electoral districts to favor a party. This is significant because it distorts representation and election outcomes, and they may become less representative. An example of this is how U.S. congressional districts are sometimes shaped to create Republican or Democratic majorities.

Transnational Cleavage

Political divisions caused by issues that cross national borders (immigration, the EU, climate change, trade, globalization). This is significant because it can help explain the rise of new parties such as the pro-EU Greens or the anti-EU TAN parties. An example of this is how pro-EU vs. Eurosceptic parties in multiple countries show conflicting views on EU integration.

Functionalism

describes how institutions exist to meet societal needs and manage conflicts between states. This is significant because it encourages cooperation between countries as they experience common problems and seek common goals. An example of this is how EU regulatory agencies ensure fair trade and protect consumers, showing practical institutional roles.

Intergovernmentalism

Theory that EU decisions reflect national governments’ preferences because individual governments maintain sovereignty and must agree before anything happens. This is significant because it explains how EU lawmaking requires national consent, and it prevents the EU from gaining too much independent power. An example of this is how the Council of the EU’s decisions often need unanimous approval from member states.

Supranationalism

theory that countries share sovereignty with higher EU institutions. This is significant because it explains why the EU can enforce rules on even the most powerful member states. An example of this is how the European Commission can fine countries for violating EU law.

European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC)

the post-WWII union of coal and steel industries. This is significant because it was the first step toward EU integration and helped reduce conflict between France and Germany by binding them through a common undertaking. An example of this is how France and Germany shared control of strategic resources to prevent future wars.

Lisbon Treaty

a reform treaty (2009) that amended 2 treaties that formed the constitutional basis of the EU. This is significant because it strengthened the Parliament and created clearer leadership roles which made decision-making easier and faster (streamlined it). An example of this is how EU foreign policy decisions became faster and more coordinated.

Maastricht Treaty

a treaty (1992) that created the European Union and created the Euro. This was significant because it was a major step towards economic and political integration in Europe. An example of this is how it introduced EU citizenship and required countries to meet economic rules to adopt the euro currency.

GAL Parties

focused on social equality, environment, civil rights, and openness. This is significant because it represents voters who favor cultural liberalism and globalization. An example of this is Green parties across Europe who support climate action and minority rights. Examples of policies they might support include: strict pollution rules, pro-immigration policies, multiculturalism, and globalization.

TAN Parties

parties that focus on order, identity, and borders, and feature more Euroscepticism and nationalism. This is significant because they represent voters that are worried about immigration, cultural change, or globalization. An example of this is a party that supports traditional family values, nationa soveriegnty, and is suspicious of supranational institutions, like the PiS in Poland.

Parliamentary Systems

a system where the executive comes from the legislature and is accountable/depends on them. This is significant because it allows for faster policymaking as coordinating between the government and lawmaking is easier. An example of this is how in the UK, the PM needs to maintain the confidence of Parliament to stay in power.

Presidential Systems

a system where the president (exec) is independently elected and separate from the legislature. This is significant because it creates a stronger separation of powers, but there is a higher chance of gridlock in policy decisions. For example, in the U.S., Congress and the president can be controlled by different parties.