Study_Guide_for_Exam_2_2025

Saturated fats

Fats that are solid at room temperature, with no double bonds between carbon atoms.

Unsaturated fats

Fats that are liquid at room temperature, with one or more double bonds between carbon atoms.

Levels of protein structure

Four levels: primary (amino acid sequence), secondary (alpha helices and beta sheets), tertiary (3D shape), quaternary (multiple polypeptide chains).

Starch

A polysaccharide made of glucose monomers, serves as energy storage in plants.

Cellulose

A polysaccharide made of glucose monomers, provides structural support in plant cell walls.

Glycogen

A polysaccharide made of glucose, serves as energy storage in animals.

Chitin

A polysaccharide that forms the exoskeleton in arthropods and cell walls in fungi.

Dehydration reaction

A chemical reaction that involves the loss of a water molecule to form bonds between monomers.

Hydrolysis

A chemical reaction that involves the addition of water to break bonds between monomers.

Monosaccharides

The simplest form of carbohydrates, consisting of single sugar molecules like glucose.

Disaccharides

Carbohydrates formed from two monosaccharides, such as sucrose (glucose + fructose).

Polysaccharides

Complex carbohydrates composed of long chains of monosaccharide units.

Triacylglycerol

A type of fat molecule composed of glycerol and three fatty acids.

Lipids

A group of hydrophobic molecules that include fats, phospholipids, and steroids.

Proteins

Large biomolecules composed of amino acids that perform various functions in the body.

Carbohydrates

Organic compounds made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, serving as energy sources and structural materials.

Nucleic acids

Biomolecules (DNA and RNA) that store and transmit genetic information.

Amino acids

Building blocks of proteins containing an asymmetric carbon, amino group, and carboxyl group.

Denaturation

The process in which a protein loses its structure and function due to environmental changes.

Renaturation

The process of a denatured protein re-folding into its functional shape.

Function of DNA

Stores genetic information.

Function of RNA

Transmits genetic information and aids in protein synthesis.

Function of proteins

Perform various tasks such as catalyzing reactions, providing structure, and facilitating transport.

Nucleotides

The building blocks of nucleic acids consisting of a nitrogenous base, a five-carbon sugar, and a phosphate group.

DNA structure

Composed of a sugar-phosphate backbone and nitrogenous bases held together by hydrogen bonds.

Central Dogma

The process of genetic information transfer from DNA to RNA to protein.

Cell nucleus

The organelle that contains the cell's genetic material and controls cellular activities.

Ribosome

The cellular structure responsible for protein synthesis.

Mitochondria

The powerhouse of the cell, responsible for producing ATP through respiration.

Cytoskeleton

A network of fibers that provide structural support and shape to the cell.

Eukaryotes

Organisms with complex cells that contain a nucleus and organelles.

Prokaryotes

Single-celled organisms that lack a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles.

Fluid Mosaic Model

Describes the structure of cell membranes as a mosaic of various proteins embedded in a fluid lipid bilayer.

Osmosis

The diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane.

Passive transport

The movement of molecules across a membrane without the use of energy.

Active transport

The movement of molecules against their concentration gradient, requiring energy input.

Sodium-potassium pump

A type of active transport that moves sodium ions out of and potassium ions into the cell.

Ligand

A molecule that binds to a receptor to initiate a biological response.

G protein signaling pathway

A signal transduction pathway that involves G protein-coupled receptors and the binding of ligands.

Receptor tyrosine kinase pathway

A signaling pathway that involves receptor proteins that dimerize and phosphorylate each other.

Ion channel receptor

A membrane protein that allows specific ions to pass through in response to a signal.