Psych 301 Midterm #1 Study Guide

What is the empirical method?

The empirical method is a way of gaining knowledge through direct or indirect observation and experimentation.

What is a theory in scientific terms?

A theory is a well-substantiated explanation of some aspect of the natural world, which differs from a hypothesis, which is a testable prediction.

How does scientific theory differ from everyday theory?

In everyday language, a theory may refer to a guess or belief, whereas in science it is based on substantial evidence and rigorous testing.

What are the parts of the theory-data cycle?

The theory-data cycle consists of forming a theory, deriving hypotheses from that theory, collecting data to test the hypotheses, and then refining the theory based on the data.

Why are skepticism, precision, and openness important to scientists?

These qualities help ensure that scientific inquiry is rigorous, accurate, and transparent, allowing for replication and validation of findings.

What is meant by falsifiability?

Falsifiability refers to the possibility that a theory can be proven wrong through observation or experimentation.

What is parsimony in scientific context?

Parsimony is the principle that the simplest explanation, requiring the fewest assumptions, is usually preferred.

What constitutes data to a scientist?

Data consists of observations or measurements collected during research that can be analyzed to support or refute hypotheses.

Why is systematic research preferable to simple experience?

Systematic research provides a structured, controlled method for understanding phenomena, reducing bias and error compared to reliance on personal experience.

What are comparison groups?

Comparison groups are groups in a study that allow for comparison against a treatment group to assess the effects of an intervention.

What is the availability heuristic?

The availability heuristic is a mental shortcut where people assess the likelihood of events based on how easily examples come to mind.

Why is cherry-picking a problem?

Cherry-picking refers to selectively presenting only data that supports a particular conclusion while ignoring data that may contradict it, leading to biased results.

What is confirmatory hypothesis testing (confirmation bias)?

Confirmatory hypothesis testing is the tendency to search for or interpret information in a way that confirms one’s preexisting beliefs.

What is a problem with 'common sense' stories?

Common sense stories can often be untested and unreliable, leading to misconceptions or oversimplifications of complex issues.

What is the difference between an empirical article and a review article?

Empirical articles present original research and data, while review articles summarize and analyze existing research on a topic.

What is a meta-analysis?

A meta-analysis is a statistical technique that combines the results of multiple studies to arrive at a comprehensive conclusion.

What is meant by effect size?

Effect size is a quantitative measure of the strength of a phenomenon, indicating the magnitude of the difference or relationship being studied.

What is the typical anatomy of an empirical article?

An empirical article typically includes sections such as Abstract, Introduction, Method, Results, and Discussion, detailing the research process and findings.

What are the three types of claims?

The three types of claims are frequency claims (describe how often something occurs), association claims (describe relationships between variables), and causal claims (indicate that one variable affects another).

Why are covariance, temporal precedence, and internal validity important?

These are crucial for establishing causality; they assess whether the variables are related, whether the cause precedes the effect, and whether confounding variables were controlled.

What does a positive association look like on a scatter plot?

A positive association is shown when points on the scatter plot rise together, indicating that as one variable increases, so does the other.

What is a negative association's representation in a scatter plot?

A negative association appears when points on the scatter plot slope downward, showing that as one variable increases, the other decreases.

What is the concept of margin of error?

The margin of error indicates the range within which the true value is expected to fall in a given percentage of cases.

What is a Type I error?

A Type I error occurs when a researcher incorrectly rejects the null hypothesis, concluding that there is an effect when there isn't.

What is a Type II error?

A Type II error occurs when a researcher fails to reject the null hypothesis, concluding there is no effect when there actually is.

What are the components of the Belmont Report?

The Belmont Report includes respect for persons, beneficence, and justice, ensuring ethical treatment of research subjects.

What does respect for persons mean in research?

Respect for persons means acknowledging the autonomy of participants and requiring informed consent for their involvement.

What does beneficence mean in research ethics?

Beneficence refers to the obligation to minimize harm and maximize benefits for participants in research.

What is the principle of justice in research?

Justice involves ensuring fair distribution of the benefits and burdens of research, advocating for equitable treatment of all groups.

What is an Institutional Review Board (IRB)?

An IRB is a committee that reviews research proposals to ensure ethical standards are met and participant rights are protected.

What do we mean by informed consent?

Informed consent is the process of providing potential participants with sufficient information about a study to make an informed decision regarding participation.

Why is informed consent important?

Informed consent is important to uphold ethical standards and respect participant autonomy, ensuring they are aware of their rights and the nature of the study.

Is deception ever used in research?

Deception may be used in research under certain ethical conditions when it is necessary to obtain valid results and participants are debriefed afterward.

What is debriefing in research?

Debriefing is the process of explaining the true nature of the study to participants after their involvement, including any deception that was used.

What does it mean to balance risks and benefits in research?

Balancing risks and benefits means ensuring that any potential harm to participants is outweighed by the anticipated benefits of the research.

Who are considered vulnerable populations in research?

Vulnerable populations include groups such as children, prisoners, and those with cognitive impairments who may require additional protections in research.

What kinds of harm do social scientists need to consider?

Social scientists need to consider psychological, emotional, or social harm that might arise from participation in research.

What other ethical considerations might we have aside from the protection of human subjects?

Other ethical considerations include confidentiality, integrity of the research process, and the implications of the research findings on society.