Topic 5: Oral communication. Elements and rules governing oral discourse. Routines and formulaic language strategies.

(Introduction) Speaking is a crucial skill in the current competence-based curriculum, as it helps students

develop lifelong abilities.

(Introduction) In some ways, speaking is an easier skill than writing

as it allows for mistakes, a simpler use of grammar and lexis and negotiation of meaning.

(Introduction) On the other hand, it (speaking) requires the speaker

to be more spontaneous and aspects such as personality and motivation play a significant role.

(Introduction) This topic will offer an in-depth analysis of the concept of oral communication, including

• its main elements

• Routines

• Rules of speaking

• and communication strategies.

Oral communication is

an interactive process that involves a listener or group of listeners, the speaker encodes a message, and the listener decodes it in order to understand it.

Oral communication involves two key dichotomies

1. First, the contrast between oral and written communication

2. Second, the distinction between spontaneous and planned language

Oral versus written dichotomy

• Written text is planned, it can be carefully structured whereas an oral text is produced in real time, and thus has imperfections.

• Oral communication may contain fillers

• Oral language allows for the negotiation of meaning whereas written language relies on the text to provide context.

• Both are equally complex but oral language often contains more clauses, typically linked in an additive fashion.

• Written texts contain more content words than oral texts, being lexically denser.

• Oral communication is likely to be much more informal and less precise than written communication.

(Oral versus written dichotomy) Written text is planned, it can be cartefully structured, whereas an oral text

is produced in real time and thus has imperfections, repetitions, ungrammatical utterances, etc. It may contain fillers.

(Oral versus written dichotomy) Oral texts may contain fillers, i.e.,

words or sounds whose purpose is primarily to give the speaker time to arrange his or her thoughts.

(Oral versus written dichotomy) Oral language and written language also differ in the demands they make on listeners and readers.

Oral language allows for the negotiation of meaning to ensure effective communication whereas written language relies on the text to provide context for interpreting meaning.

(Oral versus written dichotomy) Oral language allows for the negotiation of meaning to ensure effective communication whereas

written language relies on the text to provide context for interpreting meaning.

(Oral versus written dichotomy) Both forms are equally complex, but oral language

often contains more main clauses, typically linked in an additive fashion.

How are main clauses typically linked in oral language?

In an additive fashion

(Oral versus written dichotomy) Oral language and written language also differ in lexical density.

Written texts contain more content words (nouns and verbs) than oral texts, so they are lexically denser.

(Oral versus written dichotomy) Oral communication is likely to be

much more informal and less precise than written communication.

(Oral versus written dichotomy) Although oral and written skills are distinct, some spoken forms

share features of written language, e.g. a conference, and some written forms share features with spoken language, e.g. notes.

Example of spoken forms that share features of written language

Conference

Example of written forms that share features with spoken language

Notes

Spontaneous and planned language

Because of time constraints, most oral language is spontaneous, while most written work has been revised and polished.

Spontaneous text analysis has revealed six features (Ochs, 1979):

1. Clausal or phrasal vs. sentential organisation

2. Topic-comment structures

3. Nextness

4. Parallelism

5. Repair

6. Conjoined vs. embedded clauses

(Spontaneous and planned language) Clausal or phrasal vs. sentential organisation.

In spontaneous talk, meaning is negotiated through clauses or phrases rather than full sentences.

Unlike written language where sentences are fully structured to convey meaning.

(Spontaneous and planned language) Topic-comment structures

In oral communication, these structures introduce or shift topics informally, whereas in written language, these would be revised into more formal constructions.

(Spontaneous and planned language) Nextness

In spontaneous language, phrases are produced one after another. Each phrase is related to the previous one, unless a new topic is introduced.

On the other hand, in planned discourse, syntactic structures and cohesive devices are used to draw connections between the clauses.

(Spontaneous and planned language) Parallelism

In spontaneous speech, repetition is used to create cohesion.

In revised texts, parallelism is employed with avoidance of repetition.

(Spontaneous and planned language) Repair

Spontaneous speech is heavily marked by repair, often involving self-correction or hesitation, such as “Well, uh, you know.”

In written texts, repair mechanisms are typically replaced with more formal structures like “What I really mean is…”

(Spontaneous and planned language) Conjoined vs. embedded clauses

Spontaneous speech tends to use simple conjunctions like and to link clauses, reflecting a continuous flow of speech.

In written language, subordinate clauses are more common than in spontaneous talk.

(Clausal or phrasal vs. sentential organisation) In spontaneous talk, meaning is negotiated through

clauses or phrases rather than full sentences. Unlike written language where sentences are fully structured to convey meaning.

(Topic-comment structures) In oral communication, these structures introduce or shift topics informally, whereas in written language,

these would be revised into more formal constructions.

(Nextness) In spontaneous language, phrases are produced one after another.

Each phrase is related to the previous one, unless a new topic is introduced.

(Nextness) On the other hand, in planned discourse,

syntactic structures and cohesive devices are used to draw connections between the clauses.

(parallelism) In spontaneous speech,

repetition is used to create cohesion.

(parallelism) In revised texts,

parallelism is employed with avoidance of repetition.

(Repair) Spontaneous speech is heavily marked by repair,

often involving self-correction or hesitation, such as “Well, uh, you know”

(Repair) In written texts, repair mechanisms

are typically replaced with more formal structures like “What I really mean is…”

(Conjoined vs. embedded clause) Spontaneous speech tends to use simple conjunctions

like and to link clauses, reflecting a continuous flow of speech.

(Conjoined vs. embedded clause) In written language, subordinate clauses

are more common than in spontaneous talk.

Contextualised versus decontextualised language

Language is always contextualised, relying on shared knowledge and situational context. Spontaneous language often involves interpersonal involvement.

(Contextualised versus decontextualised language) Spontaneous talk often involves

interpersonal involvement

Contextualised versus decontextualised language TYPES

1. Features of interpersonal involvement in spontaneous speech

2. Features of detachment in written language

(Contextualised versus decontextualised language) Features of interpersonal involvement in spontaneous speech

include overlap and collaborative completions where speakers work together to express ideas. First and second personal pronouns are often used. Feedback signals are used to maintain understanding through repairs when necessary.

(Contextualised versus decontextualised language) Features of detachment in written language

include various morphological and syntactic forms such as:

• Relative clauses

• Sequences of prepositional phrases

• Nominalizations

• Passive voice

• and subordinate conjunctions.

(Features of interpersonal involvement in spontaneous speech) Feedback signals

are used to maintain understanding through repairs when necessary.

(Features of interpersonal involvement in spontaneous speech) include overlap and collaborative completions

where speakers work together to express ideas. First and second person pronouns are often used.

BICS

Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills

CALP

Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency

Both BICS and CALP are

necessary to develop competence in a language

BICS refers to

the social skills needed for everyday communication e.g. participating in casual conversations.

CALP refers to

the academic language proficiency acquired for understanding and producing complex academic context.

BICS is typically acquired quickly and is

context-dependent, i.e., it relies on nonverbal cues and shared experience to facilitate understanding. It involves participants working together to construct both the communication and its content.

What requires the participants working together to construct both the communication and its content?

Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills (BICS)

CALP involves the ability to use language for reasoning,

analysing and discussing abstract concepts. It does not require participants to interact in order to negotiate form and content.

Not all the language that takes place in the classroom can be easily classified as either BICS or CALP,

as some tasks require both types of skills.

E.g. listening to a teacher explain grammar and then asking for clarification.

(BICS and CALP) It is necessary a balanced language curriculum that

provides learners the opportunity to practise.

Success in communication can be determined by two main factors:

1. Fluency

2. Accuracy

(CALP AND BICS) Fluency

is the ability to articulate language and maintain communication using a wide range of communication strategies.

(CALP AND BICS) Accuracy

is the ability to communicate the intended meaning by producing a clear and comprehensible message according to language rules.

(The content of oral communication) The meaning conveyed in a message which belongs to the structure of language constitutes the domain of Semantics.

This meaning is interpreted by means of the propositional content of an utterance.

(The content of oral communication) But the meaning produced by the use of language, speaker's intended meaning, is

beyond the propositional content of the utterances.

Pragmatics is the discipline that

studies the interpretation of the intended meaning conveyed in a speech act.

Pragmatics explores the meaning

beyond the literal content.

(Pragmatics) Several aspects in the act of communication contribute to produce the intended meaning such as

• Body position

• Pitch

• and stress

(Pragmatics) Additionally, communication strategies such as

hesitations or silence are also part of the communication process.

Pragmatics studies:

1. Speech acts and their implications

2. Conversational and discourse analysis

3. and deictic elements.

Speech act theory is

a subfield of pragmatics that studies how words are used not only to present information but also to perform actions.

Speech act theory was introduced by

J. L. Austin and further developed by John Searle.

(Speech act theory) Austin recognised three general types of speech act:

1. A locutionary act

2. An illocutionary act

3. A perlocutionary act

(Speech act theory) A locutionary act

an identifiable set of words or sentences

(Speech act theory) An illocutionary act

the intention behind the utterance, what the speaker wants to achieve.

(Speech act theory) A perlocutionary act

consists of an act resulting from the illocutionary act (the intention).

A speech act is

any utterance that performs an action.

Speech acts have been categorized differently by many authors, although Searle’s (1976) classification is the most widely accepted:

1. Assertive

2. Directive

3. Commissive

4. Expressive

5. Declarative

(Speech act theory) Assertive

Statements that describe a situation or express a belief.

Example: “No one makes a better cake than me”.

(Speech act theory) Directive

They try to make the addressee perform an action.

Example: “Could you close the door?”.

(Speech act theory) Commissive

They commit the speaker to doing something in the future.

Example: “I promise to call you tomorrow”.

(Speech act theory) Expressive

They express how the speaker feels about the situation.

Example: “I am sorry for your loss”.

(Speech act theory) Declarative

They change the state of the world in an immediate way. Examples: “You are fired”.

Speech act theory has led to the design of

the notional-functional syllabus in language teaching. Emphasis has shifted from language structure to language use.

The Cooperative principle (Grice, 1975)

It was formulated by linguistic philosopher Grice. It applies to both speaker and listener. Grice’s cooperative principle suggests that participants in a conversation should cooperate to achieve mutual understanding.

The Cooperative principle proposes that there are 4 maxims that we keep to create effective and cooperative communication:

1. Maxim of quality

2. Maxim of quantity

3. Maxim of relevance

4. Maxim of manner

Maxim of quality

The content must be real

Maxim of quantity

Provide the right amount of information

Maxim of relevance

Content must be relevant

Maxim of manner

message must be clear and easy to understand

(Routines and rules of speaking) Rules of speaking

are culture-specific and largely unconscious.

(Routines and rules of speaking) Native speakers tend to be tolerant of errors in pronunciation or syntax when interacting with non-native speakers. However,

violations of sociolinguistic norms are often perceived as rudeness, since native speakers may not be aware of the cultural differences in communication.

(Routines and rules of speaking) Awareness of rules of speaking is essential

to avoid misunderstandings.

Communicative interference occurs

when speakers transfer the speech norms of their own community to a similar situation in another cultural context, leading to potential miscommunication (Hymes, 1972).

Sociolinguistic competence

the ability to use language appropriately in different social contexts. For example, rules of politeness.

Appropriateness of utterances refers to both

1. Appropriateness of meaning

2. Appropriateness of form

(sociolinguistic competence) Appropriateness of meaning

refers to the semantic and pragmatics aspects of language, i.e., the literal meaning and the intended message in a given context.

For example, saying “would you like to join us for dinner?” is grammatically correct, although it is an inappropriate request for the waiter who is serving your table.

(sociolinguistic competence) Appropriateness of form

refers to the structural aspects of language, phonology, morphology and syntax.

For instance, “he go to school everyday” is incorrect since the correct form is “goes”.

Appropriateness of meaning EXAMPLE

Saying “would you like to join us for dinner?” is grammatically correct, although it is an inappropriate request for the waiter who is serving your table.

Appropriateness of form EXAMPLE

“he go to school everyday” is incorrect since the correct form is “goes”.

Sociolinguistic competence involves

understanding the rules of speaking, which dictate how people communicate in different situations based on cultural and social norms.

(Sociolinguistic competence) First, people must understand when and how to use titles,

e.g. Mr., Mrs. and how social factors like status and age influence their use.

(Sociolinguistic competence) Another important component is knowing how to open a conversation appropriately.

For instance, following specific steps in telephone calls (identification, purpose of the call…).

(Sociolinguistic competence) Introducing a new topic in conversation also requires adherence to certain norms,

abruptly changing the subject without a transition may be considered impolite.

(Sociolinguistic competence) Additionally, sociolinguistic competence includes familiarity with accepted forms of address

and the ability to interpret and respond to speech acts such as greetings, apologies, compliments and disapproval.

(Sociolinguistic competence) Ethnographic observation of naturally occurring speech behaviour

is essential to collect the range of data needed to study the rules of speaking effectively. This is the case of the negotiation of meaning.

The negotiation of meaning

is an important part of the process of communication. It allows the adjustments that are needed for successful communication