U3: Learning and Development

classical conditioning

developmental process proposed by Freud in which pleasure-seeking urges focus on different erogenous zones of the body as humans move through five stages of life; postulated that if we lack proper nurturance and parenting during a stage, we may become stuck, or fixated, therein

unconditioned response (UR)

natural (unlearned) behavior that occurs in reaction to a particular stimulus

conditioned response (CR)

(test subject’s) reaction elicited by a conditioned stimulus; does not occur naturally, the subject learns to react this way to the (previously neutral) stimulus once it has been effectively paired with said stimulus

unconditioned stimulus (US)

stimulus (e.g., a bowl full of aromatically enticing food) that prompts a reflexive response (e.g., salivation) in a test subject; it requires no teaching or pairing--happens naturally

conditioned stimulus (CS)

stimulus that only elicits a response because it has been deliberately and repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus; the test subject has been taught to make an association between it and the unconditioned stimulus (e.g., when the bell that rings before the food is presented now makes the dog salivate)

neutral stimulus (NS)

stimulus that does not initially elicit a response (it will later, once the test subject has learned to associate/pair it with the unconditioned stimulus)

higher/second-order conditioning

achieved by pairing using a new neutral stimulus with one that has already been conditioned (e.g., once the dog has been conditioned to salivate when he hears the electric can opener, teaching him to salivate when he hears the squeaking door of the cabinet in which the can opener is kept)

acquisition

the initial period of learning in which an organism learns to connect a neutral stimulus to an unconditioned stimulus

extinction

process by which the test subject un-pairs the conditioned stimulus from the unconditioned stimulus; occurs when the unconditioned stimulus repeatedly does NOT follow the conditioned stimulus, as the test subject expects; the reverse of the association/pairing process

stimulus discrimination

model in which an organism learns to respond differently to various stimuli that are similar (e.g. when a test subject that has been conditioned to salivate when he hears a bell ring does NOT salivate when he hears any old loud noise--only the bell produces the response)

stimulus generalization

(the opposite of stimulus discrimination) when the test subject is unable to distinguish between stimuli that are similar to that to which he has been conditioned to respond (e.g., when ALL white fluffy things, including Santa’s beard, make Little Albert cry, not just the white rat)

behaviorism

school of thought in the field of Psychology founded by John B. Watson that arose during the first part of the 20^th century, incorporating elements of classical conditioning; it refuted the idea that behavior is motivated by unconscious thoughts and urges, instead asserting that behavior results from a person’s reaction to a stimulus; aimed to legitimate Psychology by focusing on observing outward behaviors that could be measured

little albert experiment

early 20^th century study in which Watson attempted to prove that a person could be conditioned to have a phobia; now considered unethical, researchers successfully taught the test subject to associate a fluffy white rat with a loud, jarring, banging noise that (understandably) made him cry; the pairing made the baby fear anything white and fluffy, not just the rat, though extinction happened fairly quickly

operant conditioning

type of learning in which organisms learn to associate a behavior (desirable or undesirable) with its consequence (pleasant or unpleasant); the behavior is followed by reinforcement (to strengthen it) or punishment (to weaken it), so that the learner is more likely to exhibit the desired behavior or refrain from doing the undesired behavior in the future

law of effect

theory which states that behaviors that are followed by pleasant or satisfying consequences are more likely to be repeated, and behaviors that are followed by unpleasant consequences are less likely to be repeated

positive reinforcement

considered the most effective way to teach a person or animal a new behavior, in this model, a desirable stimulus is added to increase a behavior

shaping

approach used in operant conditioning in which successive approximations of a target behavior are rewarded, having been broken into small, achievable steps that move progressively closer to the target behavior, eliminating rewards for more proximal steps as behaviors closer to the target behavior emerge; for example, a parent toilet training a small child would first reward him for communicating the urge; next, she would reward him for physically walking into the bathroom when he needs to go, for acknowledging the existence of the toilet, and then only for successfully using the toilet

secondary reinforcer

this type of reward, used in operant conditioning, has no inherent value; it only has reinforcing qualities when linked with a primary reinforcer, such as a child accumulating stickers on a chart that tracks good behavior--as the number of stickers accumulates toward some prescribed goal, the recipient will exchange them for a thing of actual value

reinforcement schedule

in operant conditioning, this refers to the interval or ratio at which a reinforcer is delivered following a behavior; the approach varies according to the moderator’s objective, such as how quickly the moderator hopes to implement the behavior

latent learning

learning that occurs, but that may not be evident until an opportunity/reason arises to demonstrate it

psychosexual development

developmental process proposed by Freud in which pleasure-seeking urges focus on different erogenous zones of the body as humans move through five stages of life; postulated that if we lack proper nurturance and parenting during a stage, we may become stuck, or fixated, therein

psychosocial development

developmental theory proposed by Erik Erikson that emphasizes the social, rather than sexual nature of our development; suggests that our sense of self, or “ego identity,” is shaped by our interactions with others, and that the process of personality development spans a lifetime, occurring in fixed stages based on age

schema

mental model that helps people to categorize and organize information; according to Piaget, children develop these to help them make sense of the world

egocentrism

characteristic that children typically display during Piaget’s preoperational stage in which they lack the ability to see the world from others’ perspectives; instead, they think that everyone sees, thinks, and feels just as they do

heinz dilemma

test developed by psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg to determine a subject’s stage of moral development; it gave a story in which a person is faced with a difficult choice--the person’s rationale for his answer, rather than the answer itself, reveals his prevailing “stage of moral reasoning”

secure base

a parental presence that gives the child a sense of safety as he explores his surroundings; Bowlby used this concept to define a healthy attachment between parent and child

strange situation procedure

test developed by Mary Ainsworth to study whether (and if so, why) children differ in the ways they bond with a primary caregiver, specifically between infants and their mothers; initially, the mother and infant are placed in a room together with some toys…after the child has several minutes to explore his surroundings, a stranger enters the room; the mother leaves the child alone with the stranger, then returns a few minutes later to comfort her child; the test looks specifically at the child’s reaction when the mother returns to determine his level of attachment to her

disorganized attachment

one possible reaction that the child may demonstrate in the “Strange Situation Procedure”; the child may freeze, run around the room erratically, or try to run away when the caregiver returns--this type of reaction is most common in children who have been abused, which has disrupted the child’s ability to regulate his emotions

authoritarian style

type of parenting in which the parent places high value on conformity and obedience; parents who practice this style are strict, tightly monitor their children, and express little warmth, which can create anxious, withdrawn, unhappy kids

temperament

set of innate traits, present from early childhood, that influence how one thinks, behaves, and reacts to one’s environment; range from easy (mostly positive emotions, adaptable to change, can regulate emotions) to difficult (mostly negative emotions, adapt poorly to change, and do not regulate emotions well)

frontal lobe

portion of the brain that is responsible for judgment, impulse control, and planning; continues to develop through adolescence, achieving full growth only in a person’s early 20s; may contribute to adolescents’ tendency for risk-taking behaviors and emotional outbursts

cognitive empathy

(also known as theory-of-mind) relates to the ability to take the perspective of and feel concern for others; begins to increase in adolescence and is an important component of social problem solving and conflict avoidance; develops most successfully in teens who have supportive fathers with whom they could discuss their worries

boomerang generation

describes recent college graduates for whom lack of adequate employment upon college graduation often leads to a return to the parental home; part of a relatively recent cultural trend of delaying the transition to adulthood in order to explore one’s options--may involve switching majors and jobs multiple times

fluid intelligence

set of cognitive abilities that includes information processing abilities, reasoning, and memory

Summarize the experience that led Ivan Pavlov to study the phenomenon that he would develop into "classical conditioning."

• he studied how much saliva dogs produced at the sight/sound of food, the sound of the lab assistant’s footsteps and the sight of an empty bowl

What is another name for an "unconditioned response"? Is an unconditioned response learned or automatic?

• natural, unlearned, reaction

• automatic

Give an example of "higher-order" or "second-order" conditioning. Why does this work?

cabinet door + can opener = salivation

• because a combination of these stimuli will make the cat salivate → conditioned response

You had a string of bad experiences with a giraffe; now you fear horses, zebras,Brachiosauruses, donkeys, and other similar animals. What is the term for this? What is its opposite?

conditioned stimulus

• opposite: unconditioned

Why would the Little Albert experiment be considered unethical today?

• watson made this baby scared by presenting him with animals and making a loud noise after, in a phobia to be formed

• he was intentionally making this kid scared

• he wasn’t concerned for the kids’ wellbeing

Describe the process of teaching and learning through Operant Conditioning

• organism learn to associate a behavior with it’s consequence

• “do this to get that” mindset

you performed well on the U2 test. Explain why you will study hard for the U3 test in the context of the "law of effect." Use language that proves your understanding of this phenomenon`

behaviors followed by positive consequences are more likley to be repeated

What is the goal of punishment? Explain the distinction between positive and negative punishment; give an example of each

• to decrease a behavior

• pos: something is ADDED to help decrease the likelihood of a behavior

• neg: something is REMOVED to hep decrease the likelihood of a behavior

What is a reinforcement schedule? Which schedule is most effective and most resistant to extinction? Why is this the case?

• rules determining when a behavior will be rewarded, influencing how fast a behavior is learned and now resistant it is to extinction

• variable ratio because it’s the most productive and high and steady responsive rate

What is the key idea behind Freud's psychosexual theory of development? Why, according to this theory, is it imperative to properly nurture children?

• personality forms through 5 distinct childhood stages (oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital) where pleasure-seeking urges focus on different erogenous zones of the body

• because our personality is shaped by experiences we have in childhood

Describe two ways in which Erikson's psychosocial theory of development deviates from that of Freud.

• emphasizes the social nature of our development rather than sexual nature

• personality develops throughout the lifespan (not just childhood)

On which aspect of child development does Jean Piaget's research focus? At which "stage" (also give the age), according to this theory, do children gain the capacity for abstract reasoning?

• cognitive development

• formal operational (12+)

What factor, according to Vygotsky, forms the basis of human development? Give an example of this construct.

• one’s culture

• the language and way a person thinks about things are dependent on their cultural background

Explain the process by which Lawrence Kohlberg determines a person's stage of moral reasoning.

• he gave people scenarios and analyzed their answers into 3 levels: pre-conventional morality, conventional morality, and post-conventional morality

• 3 levels of morality all have three different stages driven by different things

Describe the method through which Harlow studied attachment. Summarize his findings.

• separated baby monkeys from their mothers

• baby monkeys preferred a soft mother figure without milk than a wired harsh one with milk

What, according to Bowlby, must a caregiver provide in order to become a "secure base" for his/her/their child?

• parents must be physical, social, and emotional needs

• parents + child must engage in mutually enjoyable stuff

Name and describe the test that Mary Ainsworth devised to study attachment between mothers and their infants. What two factors (other than degree of attachment) have critics cited that could possibly affect a child's reaction?

TEST: Strange Situation
1. varies from culture to culture.
2. childs temperament may have affect in attachment

Which parenting style tends to be preferred in the U.S.? To what kinds of positive outcomes does it lead (in children)?

independent but connected to parents

What biological factor might account for the increased likelihood of teens to engage in risk-taking behaviors and emotional outbursts?

puberty

Summarize three changes in cognitive development that occur during adolescence

1. consider changes in perspective
2. imagine hypothetical situations
3. debate ideas and opinions

With which two life skills is the development of cognitive empathy associated?

relates to ability ti take perspective and concern for others

Explain the shift in influence that happens to adolescence. In other words, who primarily influences their psychosocial development?

transition from primary dependence on parents and family → to peers, social networks, and societal influences

What factors make it difficult to determine when an adolescent officially becomes an adult?

people are constantly evolving

What factors are believed to play a role in delaying onset of cognitive decline?

mental and physical activity