PSYC 312 Final Exam

phrenology (19th century)

phrenology (19th century)

examining the shape of a client’s head and making pronouncements about individual’s personality, abilities, intelligence based on various cranial measurements

• Franz Josef Gall (German)

• overdeveloped regions = bumps on skull

• underdeveloped regions = indents in skull

• largely dismissed by 1860s

physiognomy (18th century)

evaluation of a person’s character, intellect, abilities based on facial features

• Johann Lavater (Swiss theologian)

• eyes, nose, chin, forehead principal indicators

• perpetuated racial stereotypes

• gained merit from Cesare Lombroso’s “criminal type” of facial features

public psychology

types of psychological practices aiming to improve weaknesses, help choose careers, help find suitable partners, help overcome fears, cure depression, help communicate with dead family members and overall encourage self-improvement

• phrenology, physiognomy, mesmerism, spiritualism, mesmerism, spiritualism, mental healing

mesmerism (18th century)

fluids in the body were magnetized and many conditions of physical and mental illness were caused by a misalignment of these fluids

• Franz Anton Mesmer (German)

• may act as beginning of psychotherapy in America

mental philosophy

empirical science of the mind dealing with the nature of the mind and its relation to the body and the external world - created a home for psychology in new curriculums

• British Empiricism (John Locke)

• Scottish Realism

• American mental philosophers

self-consciousness

power by which we take cognizance of self as acting; thinking or feelings. remembering the past or anticipating the future, loving, fearing, resolving (James McCosh)

• Scottish Realism

John Locke (1632-1704)

leader of British Empiricism movement - proposed the mind is a blank slate (tabula rasa) and people acquire all knowledge through experience, not innate ideas

• knowledge come from sensation (direct experience) or reflection (ideas from interpretation of sensations)

spiritualism (19th century)

contacting dead people through communication with spirits and unseen energies - séances

• one person, called a medium, leads the séances

Franklin commission (1774)

commission launched by King Louis XVI and lead by Benjamin Franklin to test the validity of Mesmer’s Mesmerism techniques - found no evidence it worked

cortical localization

parts of the brain had specific functions

• original proponent was Franz Josef Gall, although he was wrong about which area equated what

• Paul Broca found evidence for it through studying damage to the brain with patient “Tan”

• Hitzig and Fritsch found electric current to specific cortical areas stimulated certain movements

Tan

a patient of Paul Broca who could not speak other than repeating the same syllable, “tan”

• Broca found the tissue in his left frontal lobe had died, resulting in his loss of speech → area of frontal lobe was important for language (now called Broca’s Area)

Paul Broca (1824-1880)

French physician, anatomist, and anthropologist best known for his discovery of Broca’s area, a region still recognized today as important for language, and his research supporting cortical localization

Phineas Gage (1823-1860)

American man who had a iron rod go through his skull, past his brain - he lived for 12 more years after

• commonly believed his personality changed for the worse, but now is believed to be a misconception

• changes likely weren’t that significant

psychophysics

measuring relationship between stimuli in external world and person’s perception/experience of those stimuli

• Weber’s Law

• Fechner’s Law (measuring absolute and difference threshold)

Weber’s Law (1834)

Amount of change necessary for subject to perceive a stimulus as different

• two-point threshold: distance required between touches to discriminate reliably that there are 2 points of touch

• just noticeable difference

trephination

surgical procedure in which a circular piece of bone is drilled and excised, used to treat madness

• one of the oldest surgical procedures known

• dates back to 7000-10000 years ago

Hermann Helmholtz (1821-1894)

German physicist who found that nerve conductance could be measured, can measure reaction time

• accomplished scientist in multiple fields who was a student under Johannes Müller

• trichromatic theory of colour vision

• place theory

specificity of the nerves (early 1800s)

each nerve is capable of one kind of sensation

• Bell-Magendie Law: specificity of spinal functioning - info from senses carried to dorsal part of spine, efferent info from brain carried to ventral part

• law of specific nerve energies: belief that each sensory nerve carries only one kind of sensory info

Gustav Fechner (1801-1889)

German scientist who proposed the idea of psychophysics - it is possible to measure relationship between physical and psychological worlds

just noticeable difference (JND)

Point at which subject can reliably discriminate between two stimuli

• proposed by Weber

place theory (Helmholtz)

different frequencies would have their greatest impact at different places on membrane

• basilar membrane composed of a series of transverse fibres - each one tuned to a specific frequency

frequency theory

firing of impulses from basilar membrane would match frequency of the incoming sound

• Ernest Rutherford

Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920)

German philosopher/psychologist who started the first experimental psychology lab, wrote Principles of Physiological Psychology, and established the first experimental psychology journal

• researched experimental and cultural psychology

• consciousness is the content of experience and what is made out of that experience (sensations, associations, feelings)

• wanted to identify the most basic elements of conscious experience

• he used experimental self-observation, reaction time method, mental chronometry methodologies

Georg Elias Müller (1850-1934)

German psychologist whose principal work was in memory

• discovered cognitive strategies for remembering information

• pioneered work in interference theory and proactive/retroactive inhibition

Apperception

active/intentional part of consciousness with greater focus or clarity

• principal process of psychical elements and compounds being synthesized into new experiences

• focal (main) clarity of attention

• applied to psychology by Wundt

Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850-1909)

German psychologist who pioneered research on human memory by creating nonsense syllables and measuring associations as they form; also proposed the forgetting curve (how fast people forget the things they learn)

Leipzig

German university at which Wilhelm Wundt opened the first experimental psychology lab

• Wundt was a faculty member from 1875-1917

Franz Brentano (1838-1917)

German psychologist who started the field of act psychology

• focus analysis in looking at consciousness, introspection was inaccurate

• wrote Psychology from an Empirical Standpoint

mental chronometry (mid-1800s)

using reaction time method to measure speed of mental events

• created by Francisus C. Donders and utilized by Wundt

• subtracting time required for sensory and motor functions

• still utilized in a variety of experiments today

introspection

examination or observation of one's own mental and emotional processes

• utilized by Wundt to examine stimulus perception

• utilized by Oswald Külpe to describe mental processes used when experiencing stimuli

Oswald Külpe (1862-1915)

German psychologist who worked under Wundt and went on to study higher mental processes (especially thinking)

• developed introspection method called systematic experimental introspection (reporting what mental processes were used to experience a stimuli)

Wissenschaft

philosophy instituted by University of Berlin promoting active epistemology and freedom of teaching and inquiry not characteristic of universities at the time

• resulted in establishment of many well equipped labs and freedom for students to choose classes

• allowed for Germany to achieve international success in the sciences

William James (1842-1910)

American psychologist who is regarded by many as the father of American psychology and wrote one of the most influential early books on Psychology, The Principles of Psychology

• discussed stream of consciousness and its link to selective attention, habits were a key force of social order, theory of emotion (bodily changes from perception of a situation produce emotions)

Charles Darwin (1809-1882)

English scientist responsible for creating the theory of natural selection and recognized for his work on evolution

• influenced psychologists to examine the evolutionary value of behaviours

natural selection

concept that traits that and people/animals who are evolutionary advantageous will survive to pass their advantageous genes to the next generation

• utilized in psychology to explain the existence of certain behaviours

Mary Whiton Calkins (1863-1930)

student under William James and one of the few American women pursuing higher education at that time - not granted a PhD from Harvard because women were not allowed to receive one

• the first woman to establish a psych lab, which was at Wellesley College

• researched memory and paired association method, primacy and recency effects

• first woman to be elected president of the APA in 1905

G. Stanley Hall (1844-1924)

American psychologist who founded the first psych lab and first psych journal in America, established doctoral programs in psych

• also began the Child Study Movement which flopped but spawned fields of educational and developmental psychology

• brought Sigmund Freud over for his only time in America

James McKeen Cattell (1860-1944)

American psychologist who trained under Wundt in Leipzig and came up with mental testing through the senses (which had no significance), founded the leading journal of the time Science and gave psychology visibility in the broader scientific community

• not well liked by his colleagues and was dismissed from his position at Columbia

Child study movement (1891)

lead by G. Stanley Hall, nationwide effort to use psychology to enhance education inspired by new child labor and compulsory school laws

• broad goal to discover all to be known about the children (sensory capabilities, physical characteristics, humor, play, memory, religious ideas, attention span) - mostly surveys

• completely flopped but did spawn fields of developmental and educational psychology

genetic psychology

G. Stanley Hall’s psychology proposed in his book Adolescence: Its Psychology and Its Relations to Physiology, Anthropology, Sociology, Sex, Crime, and Religion (1904)

• highly influenced by Darwin, evolutionary benefits of developments (incorporated natural selection into psychology)

APA

American Psychological Association, an organized body of professional psychologists regulating what goes on in the field - founded by G. Stanley Hall

• started in 1892 after an organizational meeting to plan an exhibit for the 1892 World’s Fair

consciousness

the controlled/aware part of the brain - includes any kind of cognition, experience, feeling, perception

• one of the most studied components from psychology, basis of many psychological theorists, including Freud and Wundt

Edward Titchener (1867-1927)

English psychologist who supported the theory of structuralism and labeled the theory of functionalism

• distinguished between mind and consciousness (recognized ever-changing nature of consciousness)

• labeled and supported use of introspection

• proposed three elements of consciousness: sensation (main focus), images, feelings

• published The Manuals: the first comprehensive guides to qualitative and quantitative research (greatest contribution)

• founded the experimentalists, an exclusive group of psychologists that were only men

• controversial due to his support of structuralism and his disregard of women

pure science

research done without regard for any practical benefits - search for knowledge for knowledge’s sake

• thought of as the superior form of research

applied science

research that is designed to have some practical application

• actively promoted by Hall, enforced by Titchener

• American ideology of research - everything should have a purpose

structuralism

Titchener’s theory of consciousness - identifying the structure of consciousness by first identifying its elements, discovering how they became grouped and arranged, determine causes of particular arrangement of elements

• why do our brains look like this, not what do they do

• system died when Titchener died (1927)

functionalism

studying mental operations not mental elements, identify fundamental utilities of consciousness, psychophysical psychology (significance of mind-body relationship)

• very diverse school of pscyhology, never officially defined, never had official leader

• diverse use of methods (introspection, surveys, mental testing, psychophysical methods)

• focused research on study of learning, much more applied

• had a lot greater impact than structuralism

• fell out of use but greatly inspired modern psychology

dynamic psychology

psychology proposed by Robert Woodworth that argued that psychology did not proceed from a definition nor from a method but from the questions it sought to answer

• what leads people to feel and act as they do

• analysis should always involve mental, biological, evolutionary components together

Margaret Floy Washburn (1871-1939)

first American woman to receive a PhD in psychology, studied under Titchener

• studied memory, interaction of emotion and memory, attention

• best known for her book The Animal Mind: treatise on animal cognition

• female president of the APA

James Angell (1869-1949)

American psychologist at the University of Chicago and spokesperson for functionalism, eventual president of the APA

• first person to identify main components of functionalism

Titchener’s Experimentalists

Titchener’s exclusive organization that he founded after leaving the APA because its membership was open to nonscientists

• only men were permitted

• became the Society of Experimental Psychology after Titchener died and allowed women

sexism in psychology

exemplified by continued barring of women from practicing and studying psychology largely until the end of the 20th century

• Mary Whiton Calkins not granted a PhD from Harvard

• Margaret Floy Washburn only being allowed to teach at women’s colleges

• Christine Ladd Franklin not being allowed in Titchener’s Experimentalists

• Lillian Moller Gilbreth not being allowed to publish under her name

• Let Stetter Hollingworth’s findings on no gender differences between women and men being disputed

Lightner Witmer (1867-1956)

American psychologist who founded perhaps the first psychological clinic in the world after helping a child with behavioural issues in school

• treated many children with learning/behavioural problems

• founded journal, The Psychological Clinic

• described a program of education and training for psychologists to do clinical work - first labeling of clinical psychology field

• developed the clinical method: testing of patient, rendering diagnosis, conducting the treatment

Walter D. Scott (1869-1955)

first psychologist who worked in business - American psychologist who founded industrial/organizational psychology

• his theory of advertising emphasized suggestion (direct command and return coupon)

Harry Hollingworth (1880-1956)

• worked with Coca-Cola to to disprove the negative effects of caffeine

• focused on the observable behaviour as a result of advertising

• pioneer in business psychology

Eugenics

field designed by Henry Herbert Goddard to improve the human race by offering incentives for the “best” people to marry and reproduce - sterilized certain people to prevent them from reproducing their “bad” genes

• use IQ tests to evaluate immigrants as feebleminded and turn them away from the US

• brought to end by Adolf Hitler’s use of it in Germany

moral therapy

combination of occupational therapy, exercise, religious training, personal hygiene, participation in activities like gardening, painting, music, carpentry

• used in mental asylums and was helpful until mental asylums started to become overcrowded

Lilian Gilbreth (1878-1972)

American psychologist and businesswoman who was the leader of the engineering psychology movement

• worked in the efficacy movement with her husband and focused on improving work conditions to increase efficacy

• eventually moved to developing products for homemakers using psychology (electric food mixer, shelves inside fridges)

• first woman to be a member of American Society of Mechanical Engineers

engineering psychology

science of human behaviour and capability, applied to the design and operation of systems and technology

• real life application of psychology

• started during WWI

• important figures: Lilian Gilbreth

forensic psychology

specialty in professional psychology characterized by activities primarily intended to provide professional psychological expertise within the judicial and legal systems

• start attributed to Harry Hollingworth and his court testimony for Coca-Cola

Raymond Cattell (1905-1998)

British-American psychologist known for his research in personality (16 personalities) and temperament, cognitive abilities, dynamic dimensions of abnormal personality, social behaviour, research methods - fluid and crystallized intelligence, factor analysis

• criticized for his support of eugenics and collaboration with neo-nazis

Henry Herbert Goddard (1866-1957)

American psychologist translated Alfred Binet’s IQ test to be used in the US

• developed intelligence tests for WWI soldiers (Army Alpha and Army Beta)

• lead the eugenics movement and sought to remove the feeble-minded from society

• enforced the eugenics laws (prevented feeble minded individuals from marrying and having kids, mandatory sterilization)

intelligence testing

measure people's cognitive functioning, including (but not limited to) verbal, mathematical, and visuospatial reasoning, memory, attention, and language comprehension and production.

• IQ testing is the most famous and was the primary vessel for the first half of the 20th century

• used as a mechanism of discrimination and racism

Alfred Binet (1857-1911)

French psychologist developed a mental test that was able to measure performance of schoolchildren, especially children who were mentally challenged

• became the model for intelligence testing for the rest of the twentieth century

Hugo Münsterberg (1863-1916)

German psychologist who was big supporter of applied psychology and founded industrial psychology

• psychology as the science of human efficiency

• psychology in industry remains an important part of the discipline today

• also contributed to forensic/law psychology

vocational guidance

helping people make choices about their career direction - started career counselling in school

• spurred on by concerns of school dropouts and juvenile delinquency

• one of the important roots of modern counselling psychology

psychoanalysis (late 19th century)

developed by Freud, psychology as a theory of the normal mind (id/ego/superego), theory of neuroses (anxiety, defence mechanisms, psychosexual stages), a method (free association, dream analysis, repression, resistance, transference)

• took over psychology in Europe and America and affected how psychology (specifically clinical) was practiced

• important practices like recognition of unconscious, importance of early experiences, psychological disorders, defence mechanisms for coping with anxiety are still used today

theory of a normal mind

all normal brains contain an id (life and death instincts - purely motivated by desire and pleasure), an ego (helps id satisfy demands by controlling the instincts according to the reality principle), an a superego (moral compass developed from world experiences

cathartic method

using hypnosis to reach the causes of physical or psychological symptoms - symptoms believed to be result of pent-up emotions that needed to be released

• done by Breuer and adopted by Freud - one of the first methods of psychological treatment

Anna O (1859-1936)

woman who exhibited symptoms of hysteria - treated by Breuer using cathartic method which greatly improved her symptoms

• cornerstone case for psychoanalysis

Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)

Austrian psychologist who founded theory of psychoanalysis

• an important figure driving the impact of the practice of psychology, particularly clinical psychology - made psychology significantly more recognized and appreciated by the general public

Karen Horney (1885-1952)

German psychoanalyst who criticized Freud’s views of women and penis envy- important reinterpretation of the theory

• proposed envy resided in men in the form of womb envy

• sought to understand why men seemed so adamant in denying opportunities to women

unconsciousness

part of the brain not accessibile through regular thought - first proposed by Freud as housing undesirable thoughts and memories

• developed by Adler as being the driving force of someone’s life style

• developed by Jung when he divided it into two parts: personal unconsciousness (repressed wishes/experiences) and collective unconscious (racial ancestral memory or archetypes)

seduction theory

hysteria cause was some sexual trauma in infancy or early childhood, often rape - proposed by Freud

• Freud completely reversed his opinion, arguing that when patients recalled these events, they were not recalling actual sexual assaults but instead were reporting sexual fantasies as though they had really occurred

• developed psychosexual stages of development

• shows the baseless assumptions made throughout the history of psychology

Neo-Freudian (mid-20th century)

psychologists who reworked Freud’s theories and believed that Freud had overemphasize sexuality

• using historical theories as bases for research and developing them

free association

method of asking patients to say whatever came to mind developed by Freud

• still an important component of many therapies

repression

defence mechanism developed by Freud that hides dark secrets from a person to prevent anxiety - revealed in dreams

• still an important anxiety defence today

defence mechanism

ways ego copes with anxiety - developed by Freud

• operate at unconscious level

• also can contribute to psychological problems (neuroses)

• still an accepted concept

dream analysis (late 1800s)

method utilized by Freud that asks patients to recall a dream in as much detail as possible

• manifest content (what dream contained) and latent content (what dreams mean)

• royal road to unconscious and the deepest secrets

• important for its unconscious mind exploration, therapeutic application, symbolism use

behaviourism (mid-20th century)

theory of learning based on the idea that all behaviours are acquired through conditioning, and conditioning occurs through interaction with the environment

• John Watson and classical conditioning - Little Albert case, lead the behaviourism movement by writing behaviourist manifesto

• Edward Tolman and cognitive maps

• Clark Hull’s quantitive theory of behaviourism

• B.F. Skinner’s operant conditioning and reinforcement

• developed psychology significantly during the 20th century and expanded physiological processes and methodologies in the psychology

• basis of modern cognitive psychology

John Watson (1878-1958)

developed behaviourism out of a concern that psychology was failing to join the natural sciences

• need to limit psychology to study of observable behaviours, not unseen consciousness

• supporter of classical conditioning: used it to train Little Albert to be scared of rats

• won the support of many psychologists due to his promise to have psychology recognized in science

• the one who sold to decades of behaviourist ideas to the American public and drove the eventual domination behaviourism had for a lot of the 20th century

Little Albert (1920)

classical conditioning case study conducted by Watson testing how a baby can learn to associate a stimulus with a certain emotion

• paired a loud noise with a rat, developing a fear of them that eventually generalized to dogs, rabbits, etc.

• not deconditioned - serves as an important reminder of the importance of ethical research

comparative psychology

studying the behaviour of nonhuman animals in order to generalize findings to human behaviour

• origin of formal modern lab experiments - manipulation of variables, controlled conditions

• Thorndike’s puzzle boxes that formulated law of effect/reinforcement

• Pavlov’s dogs and classical conditioning

• overall an important precursor to behaviourism and human research

B.F. Skinner (1904-1990)

American psychologist who developed operant conditioning and built the most internally consistent system of psychology achieved at the time (experimental analysis of behaviour)

• Skinner boxes testing how punishment/reward affected behaviour (continuous and partial reinforcement), affects of scheduling rewards

• found a lot of concrete results which developed behaviourism’s support by the American public

• was criticized for not examining internal causes of behaviour

classical conditioning

person or animal learns to associate a neutral stimulus (the conditioned stimulus, or CS) with a stimulus (the unconditioned stimulus, or US) that naturally produces a behaviour (the unconditioned response, or UR)

• first proposed by Pavlov in 1897

Edward Tolman (1886-1959)

American neo-behaviourist who believed behaviour has a purpose and always directed towards a goal - purpose is determined by cognitions

• believed cognitive processes did have a place in explanations of behaviour

• recognized intervening variables: processes interfering with stimulus and response (cognitions were)

• latent learning: distinction between response and place learners

Edward Thorndike (1874-1949)

American psychologist who developed the law of reinforcement through examining how fast rats learned to exit a box when given food at the end of it

• any act that produces satisfaction in a situation becomes more associated with that situation, so when it recurs the act is more likely to recur

Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)

Russian psychologist who first developed operant conditioning by associating food with the ring of a bell, leading to dogs naturally salivating when hearing the bell, despite there being no food

• extensively worked out the parameters of conditioning phenomena

Counselling psychology

providing mental health services for patients through various therapeutic styles (psychodynamic, cognitive, behavioural)

• drawn from vocational guidance movement and personnel work of individual psychology

• first established as a division under APA in 1945 and counselling programs began being accredited in in 1952

• centre established in many American colleges in years after WWII - now exist at almost every one

clinical psychology

clinical treatment and prevention of mental illness and promotion of subjective well-being and personal development

• started as administration and scoring of psychological tests

• WWII allowed the start of offering psychotherapy to patients

• establishment of an accreditation program in 1946

• creation of scientist-practitioner model to train psychologists

• behaviour, humanistic, and cognitive techniques soon followed

Boulder conference (1949)

conference organized by APA in 1949 with over 70 psychologists and related professionals to agree on a model for clinical treatment

• decided on scientist-practitioner model created by David Shakow

science-practitioner model

training in science + learning of clinical skills and a one-year predoctoral clinical internship model created at Boulder Conference

• continues to be a dominant training model in many psychology programs

school psychology

a speciality field that trains partitioners in testing children to see that children get special services they need to succeed academically

• education stops at master’s degree

• identifying intellectually gifted people

• accredited by APA in 1971

I-O psychology

industry and organization - emphasis on human relations, productivity, hiring, workplace attitudes, counselling in the workplace, workplace collaboration, jab satisfaction

• human factors psychology is a subfield - design of psychologically based equipment

• first department at Carnegie Institute of Technology in 1915

• a valued component of the professional world today

accreditation

process of APA program certification - needs training goals/objectives/practices, student, faculty, and financial resources, program policies/procedures, expected competencies to be developed, and outcome data

Vail Conference (1973)

offered an alternative training model to the Boulder model that placed greater emphasis on practitioner side of the scientist, specifically a new degree (Doctor of Psychology) specifically for practitioners

• marked an important movement in the start of offering alternative programs

Walter Van Dyke Bingham (1880-1952)

American psychologist who established the first department of applied psychology at Carnegie Institute of Technology in 1915

• worked with businesses in advertising and hiring

• first department of its kind

David Shakow (1901-1981)

American psychologist who created the scientist-practitioner model at the Boulder conference

• also an accomplished schizophrenia researcher

shell-shocked

mental symptoms similar to hysteria that were exhibited in soldiers after returning from WWI - inspired clinal treatment using psychotherapy

• now known as PTSD

• charles meyers