APLC Logical Methods/Fallacies

Statistics

Statistics

Direct - the use of numerical data to support a position

Examples

Direct - the use of a specific case in order to build an argument

Anecdotes

Direct - the use of a specific case that is told in the form of a story in order to support a position

Quotes (expert)

Direct - the use of the exact words of a person or source who has expert knowledge in a relevant field in order to make a point.

Definitions

Direct - the use of a widely held and accepted source to confirm the meaning of key words in an argument

Simile

Indirect - an artistic comparison using "like" or "as"

Metaphor

Indirect - an artistic comparison without like or as

Analogy

Indirect - a literal comparison between two events or situations

Antithesis

Indirect - the use of opposites as evidence

Allusion

Indirect - a reference to a well-known person, place or event

Juxtaposition

Indirect - the pairing of two incompatible things

Rhetorical Questions

Guided Reasoning - the use of questions in a text or speech, usually answered by the speaker, to guide the reader towards a line of reasoning

Declared Priorities

Guided Reasoning - The author states that X is more important than Y without providing reasoning (a form of begging the question)

Declared Sequencing

Guided Reasoning - The author states that X must be addressed before Y providing reasoning (may beg the question and may stand to reason)

Induction

Organizational Structure - moving from many individual examples to a conclusion

Deduction

Organizational Structure - beginning from a stated premise and applying that premise to a special case

Narration

Organizational Structure - An argument posed as a story which leads to a point or lesson

Chronology

Organizational Structure - An argument in which a sequence of events is placed in time-order so as to lead to a conclusion

Cause-Effect

Organizational Structure - an argument that emphasizes the relationship between actions and their outcomes

Definition

Organizational Structure - an argument that asserts the fundamental meaning of a debated word or concept

Compare-Contrast

Organizational Structure - an argument structured upon the similarities and differences between two things

false equivalence

Fallacy - occurs when someone incorrectly asserts that two or more things are similar or the same, simply because they share some characteristics, despite the fact that there are also notable differences between them.

tu quoque

Fallacy - Latin for "you also" - is a discussion technique that intends to discredit the opponent's argument by attacking the opponent's own personal behavior and actions as being inconsistent with their argument, therefore accusing hypocrisy.

two wrongs make a right

Fallacy - When a person attempts to justify an action against another person because the other person did take or would take the same action against him or her.

circular logic

Fallacy - An argument that assumes the very thing it is trying to prove is true. Instead of offering evidence, it simply repeats the conclusion, rendering the argument logically incoherent.

burden of proof (aka appeal to ignorance)

Fallacy - when someone who is making a claim states that they are proven right if another party is unable to disprove what they are claiming.

appeal to incredulity

Fallacy - Because one finds something difficult to understand, it is therefore not true.

appeal to novelty

Fallacy - Supposing that something is better because it is newer.

stacking the deck (cherry picking)

Fallacy - Omission of examples that disprove the point and listing only those examples that support the argument, especially when the majority of evidence makes a contrary case.

"No True Scotsman"

Fallacy - Defining terms in such a narrow or unrealistic manner as to exclude or omit relevant examples from a sample.

perfectionist fallacy

Fallacy - Assuming that any argument that does not result in a perfect outcome disproves the validity of the argument.

Hasty Generalization

Fallacy - a conclusion reached prematurely without sufficient evidence. This often uses words such as "all," "every," "everyone," and "no".

Faulty Use of Authority

Fallacy - The arguer attempts to justify the claim by citing testimony or opinions of those who have little or no expertise in the field

False Causation (Post Hoc, Ergo Propter Hoc)

Fallacy - The arguer suggests that because an event follows another event, it is therefore the cause of that event.

Attack Ad Hominem

Fallacy - When the writer attacks a person (personal character or reputation) instead of addressing the argument or the issue. This fallacy draws attention away from the real issues.

Black/White (Either/Or, False Dilemma)

Fallacy - This is when the arguer assumes that there are only two ways of looking at an issue.

Slippery Slope

Fallacy - The arguer predicts that one thing will inevitably lead to another that will be dramatic and undesirable. This is a cause-and-effect error that relies on simplistic, erroneous connections.

Begging the Question

Fallacy - The arguer makes an assertion as if she has already proven it. It lacks evidence.

Straw Man

Fallacy - In this diversionary tactic, the arguer attacks a view similar to but not the same as his opponent's view.

Non Sequitur

Fallacy - In Latin, "this does not follow". It is literally a nonsense argument.

Ad Populum

Fallacy - An appeal to the prejudices of the masses that asserts if many believe it, then it is so.

Bandwagon Effect

Fallacy - This fallacy is similar to Ad Populum, but relies on popularity or trendiness. If many people like something than it must be good.

Red Herring

Fallacy - This fallacy exists when the arguer throws out an unrelated argument to divert the reader's/listener's attention.

Appeal to Tradition

Fallacy - This fallacy is apparent when the arguer suggests a course of action that is correct "because we've always done it this way."

Appeal to Pathos

Fallacy - When the arguer seeks sensational or sentimental reactions in the audience; bases an argument on feelings (especially pity or fear).

Guilt by Association

Fallacy - Relies on prejudice instead of thought. When a person is negatively judged by the actions of those with whom he associates.