Topic 4: Communicative competence. Analysis of its components

The aim of this unit is

to offer a detailed analysis of the concept of communicative competence, from its origins to present-day studies.

The notions of competence and communication will be examined in depth, followed by

a profound analysis of the components of communicative competence.

(introduction) Finally, the topic will be linked to

the modern classroom, and some pertinent didactic implications of the topic outlined.

The term communicative competence was first coined by

Hymes (1972) in relation to the speaker's knowledge of how to use the language appropriately.

“Knowledge of when to speak, when not, what to talk about, with whom, when, where and in what manner.”

(Hymes, 1972)

The notion of communicative competence parallels

Chomsky's distinction of linguistic competence and linguistic performance.

While linguistic knowledge is essential, effective communication also depends on

other types of knowledge, e.g. social knowledge and strategic knowledge.

There are different conceptions of linguistic competence:

1. Behaviourist theory (B. F. Skinner’s Verbal Behavior, 1957)

2. Mentalist theory (N. A. Chomsky’s Review of B. F. Skinner, 1959)

Behaviourist theory

B. F. Skinner’s Verbal Behavior, 1957

B. F. Skinner’s Verbal Behavior YEAR

1957

Mentalist Theory

N. A. Chomsky’s Review of B. F. Skinner, 1959

N. A. Chomsky’s Review of B. F. Skinner YEAR

1959

Behaviourist theory. (B. F. Skinner’s Verbal Behavior, 1957)

According to this theory, verbal behaviour is conditioned by reinforcement ultimately resulting in the formation of habits that align with established models.

Language competence is acquired through a pattern of perception, imitation, reinforcement (approval and disapproval) and repetition.

(Behaviourist theory) Language competence is acquired through a pattern of

• Perception

• Imitation

• Reinforcement (approval and disapproval)

• and repetition

Mentalist Theory. (N. A. Chomsky’s Review of B. F. Skinner, 1959)

Chomsky argues that Skinner’s Behaviourist theory fails to adequately explain how individuals acquire the abstract rules underlying language (linguistic competence).

This suggests that there exists a complex system of rules that enable speakers to formulate an infinite number of sentences using a finite number of grammatical rules and vocabulary (creativity of language).

Linguistic competence

The abstract rules underlying language

Creativity of language (N. A. Chomsky)

There exists a complex system of rules that enable speakers to formulate an infinite number of sentences using a finite number of grammatical rules and vocabulary

Linguistic competence

The knowledge of grammatical rules

Language performance

The actual application of these rules into speech acts

Linguistic competence vs language performance

Linguistic competence, the knowledge of grammatical rules, is different from language performance, the actual application of these rules into speech acts.

Chomsky counterattacks the theory of Behaviourism by

bringing into light his concepts of Universal Grammar (UG) and Language Acquisition Device (LAD).

Language Acquisition Device (LAD)

is an inherent aspect of the human brain that is preprogrammed with specific grammatical structures common to all languages.

It enables humans to acquire languages, allowing children to learn languages rapidly and effortlessly.

What is an inherent aspect of the human brain preprogrammed with specific grammatical structures common to all languages?

Language Acquisition Device (LAD)

Universal Grammar (UG)

is a theory that suggests that the ability to learn grammar is built into the human brain from birth regardless of the language.

The theory of Universal Grammar is supported by several key observations

• Every baby is capable of acquiring any human language

• Innate structures of language must be common to all languages

• Specific language features are inferred from available data through the Language Acquisition Device (LAD)

(UG) Every baby is capable of

acquiring any human language

(UG) Innate structures of language

must be common to all languages

(UG) Specific linguistic features are inferred from available data

through the language acquisition device (LAD).

"Communication is understood... as the exchange and negotiation of information between at least two individuals through the use of verbal and non-verbal symbols, oral and written/visual modes, and production and comprehension processes"

(Canale 1983:4)

Following Widdowson (1978), all communication has some general characteristics:

• It is a social interaction, characterised by creativity and unpredictability.

• It takes place within socio-cultural contexts, which constrain the appropriateness of language use.

• It may be affected by psychological factors such as memory, fatigue and distractions

• It always has a purpose and it involves authentic language

• Success is determined by the actual outcome of communicative act.

(Communication general characteristics, Widdowson, 1978) It is a social interaction,

characterised by creativity and unpredictability

(Communication general characteristics, Widdowson, 1978) It takes place within socio-cultural contexts,

which constraint the appropriateness of language use

(Communication general characteristics, Widdowson, 1978) It may be affected by psychological factors

such as memory, fatigue and distractions

(Communication general characteristics, Widdowson, 1978) Communication always

has a purpose and it involves authentic language

(Communication general characteristics, Widdowson, 1978). Success is determined by

the actual outcome of communicative act.

Who distinguished communicative competence from communicative performance?

Canale & Swain (1980)

Canale & Swain (1980) distinguish communicative competence from communicative performance.

• Communicative competence is the underlying system of knowledge and skill required from communication

• Communicative performance is the realisation of such knowledge and skill under limiting and pyschological and environmental conditions.

Communicative competence (Canale & Swain, 1980)

is the underlying system of knowledge and skills required for communication.

Communicative performance (Canale & Swain, 1980)

is the realization of such knowledge and skill under limiting and psychological and environmental conditions.

From the field of Psycholinguistics, communicative competence is defined as

conscious or unconscious knowledge of the language

From the field of Psycholinguistics, actual communication is produced by

unconscious procedures in the use of that knowledge

The components of communicative competence

Communicative language competence is formed by a corpus of knowledge and experience about language as well as about other fields, e.g. world knowledge.

Communicative language competence is formed by

a corpus of knowledge and experience about language as well as about other fields, e.g. world knowledge.

Besides, in a broad sense individuals' cognitive and affective features

are also part of their communicative competence.

According to the Common European Framework for Languages (CEFR) Communicative Competence is formed by the following subcompetences:

• World knowledge, sociocultural knowledge, intercultural awareness and skills.

• Linguistic, Sociolinguistic and Pragmatic competences.

General areas of competence (CEFR) The general competences that a user of a language must know to carry out effective communication in a language are four:

1. Declarative knowledge (savoir)

2. Skills and know-how (savoir-faire)

3. Existential competence (savoir-être)

4. Ability to learn (savoir-apprendre)

Declarative knowledge (savoir)

1. World Knowledge

2. Sociocultural knowledge

3. Intercultural awareness and skills

World Knowledge (Declarative knowledge)

derives from experience, education and other information sources.

Sociocultural Knowledge (Declarative knowledge)

refers to knowledge of the society and culture of the community where a particular language is spoken. For instance: interpersonal relations, e.g. greetings.

Intercultural Awareness and skills (Declarative knowledge)

is the knowledge, awareness and understanding about our own culture and knowledge about other cultures.

Skills and know-how (savoir-faire)

1. Practical skills

Practical skills (Skills and know-how)

• Social skills

• Living skills

• Professional skills

• Leisure skills

Existential competence

speakers' individual factors that contribute to their personal identity.

1. Speakers’ cognitive styles

2. The affective domain

Speakers’ cognitive styles (Existential competence)

affect their competence in language comprehension and production.

For instance, convergent and divergent thinking.

The affective domain (Existential competence)

e.g. attitude and motivation.

Ability to learn (savoir-apprendre)

the ability to observe and incorporate new knowledge into existing knowledge, modifying the latter if necessary.

It includes study and heuristic skills

Communicative Language Competences (Canale and Swain, 1980) Apart from the general capacities already described, communicative competence has the following components:

1. Linguistic competence (lexical, grammatical, semantic, phonological, orthographic and orthoepic competences)

2. Sociolinguistic competence

3. Pragmatic competence

   • Discourse competence

   • Functional competence

Linguistic competence (Canale and Swain, 1980)

includes language elements, e.g. phonemes, and grammar rules. It refers to the literal meaning of utterances and the ability to understand and produce language according to these rules.

Different types of linguistic competence

1. Lexical competence

2. Grammatical competence

3. Semantic competence

4. Phonological competence

5. Orthographic competence

6. Orthoepic competence

(Linguistic competence) Lexical competence

The knowledge and ability to use the vocabulary of a language. It consists of lexical elements:

• Fixed expressions and frames, may I have… please?

• Single word forms:

  • Open word classes

  • Closed word classes

(Linguistic competence) Grammatical competence

The knowledge and ability to use the grammatical resources of a language. For example, syntax.

(Linguistic competence) Semantic competence

It deals with learners' awareness and control of the organization of meaning.

Lexical semantics deals with questions of word meaning, e.g., reference and synonymy.

(Linguistic competence) Phonological competence

The knowledge and skill to understand and produce the sound-units of the language (phonemes) and their realization in particular contexts (allophones).

It also involves the knowledge of the suprasegmental elements like intonation.

(Linguistic competence) Orthographic competence

It involves knowledge and skill to understand and produce the written signs of the language.

E.g. the proper spelling of words.

(Linguistic competence) Orthoepic competence

The knowledge and skill to read aloud a written text with a correct pronunciation. It involves:

• Knowledge of spelling

• Punctuation marks

• Intonation...

Sociolinguistic competence (Canale and Swain, 1980)

It is the ability to use language appropriately in different social contexts. For example, rules of politeness. Appropriateness of utterances refers to both:

• Appropriateness of meaning

• Appropriateness of form

Appropriateness of meaning (Sociolinguistic competence)

refers to the semantic and pragmatics aspects of language, i.e., the literal meaning and the intended message in a given context.

For example, saying “would you like to join us for dinner?” is grammatically correct, although it is an inappropriate request for the waiter who is serving your table.

Appropriateness of form (Sociolinguistic competence)

refers to the structural aspects of language, phonology, morphology and syntax. For instance, “he go to school everyday” is incorrect since the correct form is “goes”.

Sociolinguistic competence involves understanding the rules of speaking,

which dictate how people communicate in different situations based on cultural and social norms.

First, people must understand when and how to use titles, e.g. Mr., Mrs.

and how social factors like status and age influence their use

Another important component is knowing how to open a conversation appropriately.

For instance, following specific steps in telephone calls (identification, purpose of the call…).

Introducing a new topic in conversation also requires adherence to certain norms,

abruptly changing the subject without a transition may be considered impolite.

Additionally, sociolinguistic competence includes familiarity with

accepted forms of address and the ability to interpret and respond to speech acts such as greetings, apologies, compliments and disapproval.

Pragmatic competence

The ability to use language effectively in a contextually appropriate manner.

Pragmatic competence deals with the knowledge of the principles according to which messages are:

• Organized, structured and arranged (discourse competence).

• Used to perform communicative functions (functional competence).

• Sequenced according to interactional and transactional schemata (design competence)

The knowledge of the principles according to which messages are organized, structured and arranged :

Discourse competence

The knowledge of the principles according to which messages are used to perform communicative functions

Functional competence

The knowledge of the principles according to which messages are sequenced according to interactional and transactional schemata

Design competence

(Pragmatic competence) Discourse competence

It refers to the combination of forms (cohesion) and meanings (coherence) in order to achieve text unity.

(Pragmatic competence) Functional competence

This component is concerned with the use of spoken discourse and written texts in communication for particular functional purposes such as everyday communication needs.

(Discourse competence) Cohesion is related to

how utterances are linked together.

(Discourse competence) Coherence is related to

the relationships among the different meanings in a text.

(Functional competence) Conversational competence is not simply a matter of which micro functions are expressed.

It involves active engagement in an interaction, where each action prompts a response (CEFR).

(Discourse competence) Microfunctions

are categories for the functional use of single utterances, usually as turns in an interaction, e.g. correcting and asking.

(Discourse competence) Macrofunctions

are categories for the functional use of spoken discourse or written text consisting of a sequence of sentences, e.g. description and narration.

The Cooperative Principle (Grice, 1975)

It applies to both speaker and listener. Grice’s cooperative principle suggests that participants in a conversation should cooperate to achieve mutual understanding. This principle proposes that there are 4 maxims that we keep to create effective and cooperative communication.

1. Maxim of quality

2. Maxim of quantity

3. Maxim of relevance

4. Maxin of manner

Who formulated the Cooperative Principle?

The linguistic philosopher Grice.

Grice’s four maxims

1. Maxim of quality: the content must be real

2. Maxim of quantity: provide the right amount of information.

3. Maxim of relevance: content must be relevant.

4. Maxim of manner: message must be clear and easy to understand.

Maxim of quality

the content must be real

Maxim of quantity

provide the right amount of information.

Maxim of relevance

content must be relevant.

Maxim of manner

message must be clear and easy to understand.

Strategic competence

It refers to the appropriate use of communication strategies, i.e., strategies employed when people encounter a communication problem during conversation.

(Strategic competence) Celce-Murcia et al. (2001) classify communication strategies into five types:

1. Avoidance or reduction strategies (avoidance and message abandonment)

2. Achievement or compensatory strategies

   • Approximation

   • Circumlocution

   • Word coinage

   • Literal translation from L1

   • Language switch

   • Using gestures

3. Time-gaining strategies (fillers or hesitation devices)

4. Self-monitoring strategies (self-initiated repair)

5. Interactional strategies (appeal for help and meaning negotiation strategies)

(Strategic competence) Avoidance or reduction strategies

such as topic avoidance and message abandonment.

(Strategic competence) Achievement or compensatory strategies

such as approximation, circumlocution, word coinage, literal translation, language switch and using gestures.

(Strategic competence) Time-gaining strategies

like fillers or hesitation devices e.g. You know…, er…

(Strategic competence) Self-monitoring strategies

like self-initiated repair and self-rephrasing with over-elaboration

(Strategic competence) Interactional strategies

such as appeal for help, either direct or indirect, and meaning negotiation strategies which are the indicators of a problem e.g. What do you mean by…?

(strategic competence: Achievement or compenstory strategies) Approximation

involves using an item in L2 which has a relatively close meaning to the one needed (e.g. fish for sardine)