Carbon cycle

What are stores in carbon cycle

Natural systems that accumulate and hold carbon

What does terrestrial mean

On or relating to the earth

What’s are fluxes

The rate of flow between stores

What’s equilibrium

A state in which opposing forces or influences are balanced

What is out gassing

The release of gases or vapours trapped, dissolved or absorbed within any material. Often triggered by reduced pressure.

When was the Paris Climate Conference first signed and by whom

December 2015 and by 195 countries

What was the Paris Climate Conference and its goals( COP21 )

The first legally binding global climate deal.

Governments agreed to a long term goal of keeping the increase in global temperature below 2 degrees Celsius above pre industrial levels

Requires serious reduction of GHG emissions

What did Trump do in terms of climate if COP21

President Trump announced his intention to withdraw from the Paris Agreement but 8 US states have introduced legislation to reach 100% renewable energy in the coming decades

What did IPCC state about COP21 goals

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) stated that keeping levels below 2 degrees Celsius wouldn’t be enough and that it would be necessary to keep levels below 1.5 degrees Celsius to prevent disaster.

What was COP30 about and when was it

Jan 2025 in Brazil to discuss and negotiate actions against climate change

What did Trump do in early Jan 2026

Withdrew from key climate treaties any many other groups which protect the environment.

What was the global gas consumption in 2024

40 Terawatts hour (TWh)

What was the global oil consumption in 2024

55 Terawatts hours (TWh)

What was the global coal consumption in 2024

46 Terawatts hour (TWh)

How do national factors affect oil production and consumption

Fracking in USA reduces dependency of oil imports so impacts OPEC prices of oil

Economic growth in China exceeds 9% in 2000s

Oil consumption in US grew by 9%

What are some regional factors ( multiple nations) that affect oil production and consumption

EU has warmer winters so fall in demand for energy

2011-2012 instability due to Arab springs and Libyan Crisis

Fracking in USA between 2014 and 2016 has made oil prices to drop so increase competition. This causes OPEC to reduce oil prices to compete even though they maintain oil production

Terrorism, lack of investment and instability in ME causes oil production to drop between 1998 -2007

What are some global factors that affect oil production and consumption

2008 financial cris creates a dip in emissions and increased oil prices

Global pandemic COVID

What’s thermo haline circulation

a giant conveyor belt that moves water of varying temperatures and salinity through oceans.

How does thermohaline circulation work?

The circulation system sends warm salty Gulf Stream towards North Atlantic, releasing heat into atmosphere. This warms Western Europe. The water turns cold so it sinks down and travels to Antarctica, circulating back to Gulf Stream. This acts as a big carbon pump

What is Brine rejection

When salty water freezes, salt is expelled because it doesn’t fit the crystal structure of the ice. This causes the salt to drain into surrounding seawater, creating salter denser brine. This sinking drives ocean circulation.

Why does cold water hold more CO2 than warm water

When cold water upwells towards surface, it heats up so warm water loses CO2 to the atmosphere (carbon flux). When cold water sinks, CO2 sinks down with it

What’s the biological carbon pump

Phytoplankton in ocean sequester CO2 from atmosphere for photosynthesis and into ocean stores

What’s carbonate pump

Part of the biological carbon pump. Occurs when phytoplankton sequester carbon from atmosphere into ocean store via photosynthesis. CO2 is used to create calcium carbonate shells in phytoplankton. When they die, carbon rich organisms sink to bottom of the ocean and accumulate as sediment.

What are biological decomposes

Organisms mostly bacteria,fungi and invertebrates that break down dead plants, animals and waste products into simpler inorganic substances

What evidence suggests that the Gulf Stream is failing?

It stopped for 10 days in 2004

Speed of circulation between Gulf of Mexico and Europe slowed down by 30% since 2000

Gulf Stream slowed by 6 million tonnes of water per second over 12 years

What are the causes of the Gulf Stream failing

Melting Arctic ice was increasing the amount of freshwater in North Atlantic

This decreases oceans salinity so cold water can’t sink

Warm water has nowhere to go so North Atlantic was losing its pulling effect

How does salinity cause sinking of cold water

Salt rejected from ice formation (brine rejection) makes surrounding cold seawater denser so that it sinks

If the Gulf Stream stopped how would the biological carbon pump be affected

Organism on the surface of the ocean sequester carbon like phytoplankton via photosynthesis. This creates a food chain. Larger marine animals eat, defecate,die and decompose they produce sinking carbon containing particles called marine snow.

This moves 5 to 15 gigatons of carbon out of atmosphere per year for organisms to make shells and bones

Nutrient released through decomposition would be brought to ocean surface so phytoplankton would die, stopping food chains

Why is carbon important

Considered as the building block of life as it can be found in all of the earths spheres, animals plants and trees. Carbon is in GHG like CO2 and methane and fossil fuels which are mostly made up of hydrocarbons

What are the different stores of carbon

Atmosphere - CO2, methane

Hydrosphere - dissolved CO2

Lithosphere - carbonates in limestone and fossil fuels

Biosphere - in living and dead organisms

Cryosphere - biological carbon in permafrost, preventing bacterial decay

What the order of the stores of carbons from highest to lowest

Lithosphere - 100,000,000 pg petagrams

Oceans - 38,000 pg

Fossil fuels - 4000 pg

Soils - 1500 pg

Atmosphere - 5750

Plants - 560 pg

What are the different fluxes of the carbon cycle

Burning fossil fuels

Photosynthesis

Plant respiration

Soil respiration

Plant litter fall

Ocean uptake

Ocean loss

Deforestation

Rivers

Volcanoes

What are the order of fluxes of fluxes in carbon cycle from highest to lowest

Photosynthesis - 120 Pg

Ocean uptake - 92 Pg

Ocean loss - 90 Pg

Plant litter fall, soil respiration, plant respiration- 60 Pg

Burning fossil fuels - 6 Pg

Deforestation - 0.9 Pg

Rivers - 0.8 Pg

What’s the short carbon cycle

Determines how much carbon is available and stored in the cycle. Life is critical to this cycle. Also known as the biogeochemical carbon cycle. It has reservoir turnover rates between few year to thousand years.

What are the carbon fluxes between seconds and minutes

Plants absorb carbon from atmosphere for photosynthesis and release back into atmosphere via transpiration

What are the annual fluxes of carbons fluxes

10-500 years carbon from dead plant materials reside in soils for years before being decomposed by microbes and released back into atmosphere

What are the carbon fluxes between 1000 and millions of years

Organic material buried deep in sediments slowly transform into deposits of coal ,oil and gas which are fossil fuels. Burning this releases carbon into atmosphere

How is carbon held in destructive plate boundaries

Terrestrial carbon is held in the mantle( peridotite). Water is released from subducting plates on destructive plate boundaries. This lowers the melting point of peridotite in the mantle and creates magma which is less dense than the surrounding rocks. So magma rises and forms composite volcanoes.

How is carbon released from constructive plate boundaries

At constructive plate boundaries magma is also released with gas which contains CO2. This is called outgassing.

How is carbon held in rain and atmosphere

CO2 held in atmosphere which mixes with rainwater to create weak carbonic acid (acid rain)

How is carbon transferred as precipitation

Weak carbonic acid precipitates on land by orographic, frontal and conventional rain

How does carbonation by acid rain release carbon

Acid rain dissolves carbonate rocks such as limestone and chalk releasing bicarbonate gas

How are rivers a type of flux in the carbon cycle

As River valleys are created, weathered material falls into the river which washes sediment down to the sea. This sediment has carbon.

How is sediment being washed into the sea by the river, a type of store

Sediment containing carbon is deposited and builds up over time. The weight of the ocean and the accreted material results in lithification, creating sedimentary rocks. This is sequestration

How are organic matter a type of flux

Plant and animals are made of carbon so when they die, the organic matter from bones and shells sinks to the bottom of the ocean, called the abyssal plain

How is the abyssal plain a store for carbon

Organic materials build up creating strata of oil, limestone of chalk. CO2 gas can be released by this process.

How can organic matter create strata on land

Dead Trees from coal

How are igneous rocks such as basalt and granite a type of store

Carbon rock rocks subducts at destructive plate boundaries which melts as the peridotite in the asthenosphere above melts. This carbon emerges as lava in volcanoes creating igneous rocks like basalt and granite

How does the formation of metamorphic rock store and release carbon

Magma in lithosphere creates heat in surrounding rocks and tectonic movements creates high pressure which also creates heat. This causes metamorphosis of sedimentary and igneous rocks which create metamorphic rocks holding carbon. This chemical process releases CO2 gas

what’s sequestration

Movements of carbon into carbon stores lowering amount of CO2 in atmosphere

What’s the main process of responsible for sequestering carbon from atmosphere

Photosynthesis by land based plants and phytoplankton

How much of carbon is stored in the ocean

93% of CO2 stored in undersea algae, plants, coral and dissolved forms so it’s the largest carbon storage on earth

What are the three carbon cycle pumps which move CO2 to the sea floor and to the ocean surface to be released in atmosphere

Biological pump

Carbonate pump

Physical pump

What’s the biological pump

Phytoplankton sequester carbon from ocean for photosynthesis which converts CO2 into organic matter. This transports carbon from oceans surface to deep ocean stores.

Organisms die so shells and bones sink to deep water

The decay of these organisms release CO2 in deep water stores

Oceans regulate atmosphere composition by storing carbon from ocean surface to deep ocean stores along with dissolved carbon store which regulates the carbon cycle

What’s the carbonate pump

Relies on inorganic carbon sedimentation

Organism die and sink but shells dissolve before they reach ocean floor so enter deep ocean currents

CO2 absorbed by the ocean from atmosphere, forms carbonic acid which reacts with hydrogen ions to from bicarbonates and further reactions form carbonates which are stored in the upper ocean

Organisms use these carbonates to make shells or skeletons

When these organisms die, material sinks to ocean floor, forming the sea bed sediment

Over time, through chemical and physical processes the carbon is transformed into rocks such as limestone

This process locks up carbon in long term carbon cycle so doesn’t easily return to ocean surface so less likely to be released into atmosphere

What’s the physical pump

Considered the most important transfer

CO2 absorbed by ocean surface through diffusion

Dissolved COW then moved from surface water to mid and deep ocean stores through downwelling currents

The thermohaline circulation then distributes the carbon around the planet

Cold water absorbs more CO2 so as equatorial hot water moves to the cold poles , more CO2 is absorbed

Salinity increases when water moves to the poles making water denser so water sinks (downwelling). This takes CO2 from ocean surface to deep ocean stores

More diffusion occurs at the surface so regulates carbon in atmosphere

Upwelling of carbon from mid and deep oceans to surface oceans.

By upwelling currents and turbulence made by surface winds, carbon stored in mid and deep ocean stores return to ocean surface and then to atmosphere

What’s the importance of thermohaline circulation

Circulates carbon by moving carbon in the carbon pump from the surface to deeper waters

What’s the time scale of terrestrial sequestration

Shortest time scale of second ministers or years

What’s the natural greenhouse effect

Warming of the atmosphere as gases such as CO2, CH4 and water vapour absorb heat energy radiated from the Earth

What’s the enhanced greenhouse effect

The increase of the natural greenhouse effect through human activities by increasing quantities of greenhouse gasses released into atmosphere

Radiative forcing effect

Amount of greenhouse gases that affect the balance between Earths incoming solar radiation and outgoing long wave radiation

What’s an energy pathway

Flows of energy between producer and consumer and how it reaches the consumer

What’s the arctic amplification

Phenomenon wheee Arctic region is warming twice as fast as the global average

What’s solar insolation

The angle of the suns rays makes solar insolation intense at equator but dispersed over a wider area at the poles.

What’s Arctic amplification

One degree rise in temp can radically alter the soil (melt permafrost in tundra)

What’s the largest terrestrial store

Tropical rainforests because most of the carbon is stored in trees that live up to hundreds of years. Soil is also a large store of carbon in ecosystems

What are diurnal carbon flux variations

Positive fluxes between atmosphere and the ecosystem during the day as CO2 is absorbed. Fluxes become negative in the night as CO2 is returned to the atmosphere

What are seasonal carbon flux variations

Autumn and winter means more CO2 is released but spring and summer causes a decrease in armospheric CO2 as more CO2 is absorbed.

What are 7 characteristics of healthy soils

Dark,

many worms

, many nutrients, air

Lots of carbon,

Captures carbon

Resilience to wet weather because of infiltration and percolation

Retinas moisture so avoids risk of droughts

What’s the role of soil in carbon cycle

Carbon balance in soil is controlled by inputs from photosynthesis and outputs from respiration

Inputs : plant litter and animal waste

Outputs : decomposition, erosion and uptake in plant growth

How is melting permafrost a type of positive feedback loop

Tundra surface and ocean surface is warmed which melts permafrost

Methane and co2 is released

This increases greenhouse warming

Which increases warming of tundras and permafrost melting

How is nutrients being used to grow plants create a negative feedback loop

A slight increase in temperature causes nutrients from decomposition to be used in growth of trees and shrubs

Trees and shrubs photosynthesise and store carbon

Less carbon in atmosphere so reduced greenhouse effect

Slight decrease in temp

What factors affect amount of energy consumed in a country

Physical availability, Cost, technology, political considerations, level of development, environmental priorities.

What’s energy mix

Describes the range and combinations of sources required to supply a country with energy.

What’s the definitions of energy security

Being able to access reliable and affordable sources of energy. Energy may be obtained domestically or imported.

What’s the difference between energy consumption in urban and rural

London generates 1,7mn tonnes of carbon a year. Energy demand is met through web of international supply lines

2006-2015 Peru installed solar panels in rural villages which increased productivity and delivered sustainable development.

What’s the link between energy security and energy mix in countries

Counties with high energy mix will most likely to be energy secure.

What are the 2 types of energy mix sources

Primary and secondary sources

WHat are primary sources of energy mix sources

They are consumed in raw form e.g fossil fuels, nuclear energy and renewable sources

What are secondary sources of energy mix sources

Primary sources used to generate electricity which is used as a secondary source. This flows through power lines

What are examples of recyclable sources of energy

Reprocessed uranium and plutonium from nuclear power plants

Whats the UKs energy mix over time

Oil reserves in North Sea makes a large part of UK energy mix, originally

These reserves are diminishing so UK has become more dependent on imported energy from overseas sources

More energy generated from renewable sources, currently.

Energy saving tech are becoming more developed, energy consumption goes down

how has Inland energy consumption changed from 1990 to 2024 in UK

Oil consumption increased by 2%

Gas increased by 11.6%

Coal decreased by almost 30%

Primary electricity increased by more than 4%

Bio energy and waste has increased by 12%

Where does UKs gas come from

45% from UK production

38% from European piplines - 21% of Europe’s gas comes from Norway, 35% of europes gas comes from Russia. Russias pipeline goes through Ukraine

17% from LNG tankers

How much of UK enegy comes from renewable sources

2020 - first year that UK had electricity coming from renewable sources predominantly. 43% of power coming from wind solar, bioenergy and hydroelectric sources. Though this was during Covid lockdown.

How was 2023 significant in renewable sources

20233 was the greenest year on record.

What is an energy pathway

Describes the flow of energy between producer and consumer and how it reaches the consumer e.g pipeline, ship, rail

What is the difference in physical availability in UK and Norway as a factor in energy consumption

UK - until the 70s, heavily reliant on domestic coal from Yorkshire, Derbyshire etc. Global leaders in nuclear tech 50s - 70s. In 1970s oil and gas found in North Sea

Norway - HEP because of mountainous terrain, steep valleys, lots of rainfall . Oil and gas in Norways water exported. Coal from Svalbard exported

What’s the difference in cost as a factor affecting energy consumption between UK and Norway

UK - dependent on North Sea reserves after oil prices rose in 70s. Though, expensive to extract so if oil prices drop they become less viable to export. Stocks of oil and gas are falling so forcing imports

Norway - costs are low once capital investments are complete. Costs are high if transferring HEP electricity from rural regions to urban pop. Norsk Hayden runs 600 HEP sites, supplying 97.5% of Norway’s renewable electricity.

What’s the difference in tech as a factor affecting energy consumption between UK and Norway

UK - current tech and environmental policies makes extracting of 150 years worth of coal difficult and expensive. Last deep coal mine closed in 2015

Norway - deep water drilling tech allowed Norway and UK to extract oil and gas in North Sea

Wats the difference in political consideration as a factor affecting energy consumption between UK and Norway

UK - increasing reliance on imported energy. Public concern over possible fracking and nuclear sites. Privatisation of energy supply industry in 80s so overseas companies decide which energy sources meet Uk demand- buying primary energy in international markets.

Norway - Gov took interventionist approach so foreign firms can’t own any primary energy source sites like waterfalls and forests. Royalties and taxes paid into gov from sale of fossil fuels to increase gov spending into public services. Profits from sales also go to Sovereign wealth fund to prepare for a future without fossil fuels and investment into environmentally sustainable projects.

What’s the difference in energy use per capita between Norway and UK

Norway citizen uses 5x more than Uk citizen

What’s the difference in GDP per capita between Norway and UK

Norway is 1.5 x greater

What’s the difference in average annual household energy costs between Norway and UK

Norway is 1.8 x greater

What’s the difference in environmental priorities as a factor affecting energy consumption between Norway and Uk

UK - 2015 - committed to 40% reduction in domestic GHG emissions by 2030 compared to 1990 levels. Wants to broaden energy mix with renewable sources and more nuclear power. Abandoned Green Deal conservation and insulation schemes in 2015.

Norway - also committed to 40% reducing in domestic GHG by 2030 compared to 1990 levels. ‘Policy for Change’ launched in 2016 to become carbon neutral by 2050

What’s the role of TNCs in energy pathways

Most of the to TNCs are state owned so government controlled. Involved in exploring extracting, transporting and refining of fossil fuels e.g. sinopec,

What’s the role of OPEC in energy pathway

13 countries that control 2/3 of worlds oil reserves. So controls amount of oil and gas entering global market and its price. Accused for holding back production to increase prices.

Between 2012 - 16 , high levels of oil production ton reduce prices to compete with USAs oil production from fracking which caused a collapse in global oil prices

What’s the role of energy companies in worlds energy pathway

Convert primary energy like oil, gas nuclear into electricity to distribute it. Can influence consumer prices and tariffs

What role do consumers play in worlds energy pathway

Create demand. Purchasing choice dependent on prices. Have some influence over oil companies by buying electric cars or installing solar panels but most solar panels and wind farms were only installed after subsidies by gov

Protests against fracking

What role do national governments play in worlds energy pathways

Meet international obligations and meet energy supplies of today and future whilst supporting economic growth

Regulates role of private companies and setting b environmental priorities. 2 overseas TNCs backed by UK to develop nuclear power plants in UK