Period 1: 1491–1607 APUSH STUDY GUIDE Midterm

Maize (Corn)

A primary staple crop domesticated by indigenous peoples in Mexico around 10,000 years ago; its cultivation spread throughout North America, supporting permanent settlements, population growth, and the development of socially stratified societies like the Aztecs and Mayans.

Three Sisters

The sustainable agricultural system practiced by many Native American groups including the Iroquois; it consists of corn (maize), beans, and squash grown together. The corn provides a structure for beans to climb, beans fix nitrogen in the soil, and squash leaves shade the ground to retain moisture and prevent weeds.

Great Basin and Great Plains Cultures

Groups like the Sioux and Pawnee who primarily lived mobile, nomadic lifestyles due to the aridity of the Great Basin and the vast grasslands of the Plains; they relied heavily on hunting bison and gathering after the introduction of the horse by the Spanish.

Pacific Northwest Cultures

Societies such as the Chinook and Haida who developed complex communities supported by the abundance of the Pacific Ocean and local rivers; they practiced long-distance trade and lived in permanent longhouse structures.

Iroquois Confederacy

A powerful alliance of five (later six) Northeastern tribes (Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, Seneca) that established a sophisticated political and military organization to maintain peace and present a unified front against rival tribes and Europeans.

Cahokia

Located near modern-day St. Louis, it was the largest city of the Mississippian culture (c. 1050-1350 CE), featuring massive man-made earthen mounds and a population of up to 30,000, indicating advanced urban planning and trade.

Astrolabe

An ancient Greek invention perfected by Muslims that allowed sailors to determine their latitude by measuring the position of the stars and sun; this was a crucial technological advancement for European transoceanic exploration.

Caravel

A small, highly maneuverable sailing ship developed in the 15th century by the Portuguese; its triangular lateen sails allowed it to sail against the wind, facilitating exploration of the African coast and the Atlantic.

Christopher Columbus

An Italian explorer funded by the Spanish monarchs Ferdinand and Isabella; his 1492 voyage reached the Bahamas, initiating permanent contact between the Eastern and Western Hemispheres and sparking the Columbian Exchange.

Columbian Exchange

The extensive global transfer of plants, animals, diseases, and people following Columbus's voyages. Examples include Old World smallpox and horses to the New World, and New World potatoes and maize to the Old World.

Treaty of Tordesillas (1494)

An agreement between Spain and Portugal mediated by the Pope to prevent conflict over New World claims; it drew a longitudinal line through the Atlantic, granting Spain most of the Americas and Portugal lands in Africa and Brazil.

Conquistadores

Spanish explorers and soldiers, such as Hernán Cortés and Francisco Pizarro, who sought the 'Three Gs' (Gold, God, Glory) through the conquest of the Aztec and Inca Empires in the early 16th century.

Encomienda System

A Spanish labor system where the crown granted colonists a specified number of Native Americans to work land or mines. In theory, colonists were to protect and Christianize them, but in practice, it was a form of brutal forced labor.

Casta System

A strict social hierarchy in Spanish America based on racial ancestry, where status was determined by the percentage of Spanish blood (Peninsulares at top, followed by Creoles, Mestizos, Mulattos, and Natives/Enslaved Africans at the bottom).

Mestizo

A person of mixed Spanish and Native American ancestry. Their status in the Casta system was below Peninsulares and Creoles but above full-blooded indigenous people.

Bartolomé de las Casas

A Spanish priest and former encomendero who became a vocal critic of the Spanish treatment of Native Americans; his writings, such as 'A Short Account of the Destruction of the Indies,' helped spark the New Laws of 1542.

Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda

A Spanish theologian who argued during the Valladolid Debate (1550-1551) that Native Americans were 'natural slaves' and that conquest was justified to spread Christianity and civilization.

The Black Legend

The historical perception, often fueled by rival European powers like England, that the Spanish were uniquely cruel and abusive toward Native Americans, used to justify British and French colonial expansion.

Pueblo Revolt (1680)

Also known as Popé's Rebellion, this was a successful uprising of Pueblo Indians against Spanish rule in New Mexico; it expelled the Spanish for 12 years and eventually led to greater Spanish religious tolerance for indigenous customs.

New France

The French colonial empire in North America, primarily focused on the fur trade (especially beaver) and Catholic missionary work (Jesuits); they maintained better relationships with Native Americans compared to the English due to trading alliances.

Joint-Stock Company

A business entity where different stakes can be bought and owned by shareholders; these funded early English colonial ventures like the Virginia Company to mitigate the high financial risks of exploration.

Jamestown (1607)

The first permanent English settlement in North America. After early struggles with starvation and disease, it became profitable through the introduction of tobacco by John Rolfe.

Tobacco

A labor-intensive cash crop popularized in Virginia by John Rolfe; it saved the Jamestown colony economically but created an insatiable demand for land and labor, eventually leading to the shift from indentured servants to enslaved Africans.

The Starving Time (1609-1610)

A period of extreme hardship in Jamestown where nearly 80\% of the colonists died from famine, disease, and conflict with Native Americans before the colony was reinforced with supplies.

House of Burgesses (1619)

The first democratically-elected legislative body in British North America, established in Virginia; it set a precedent for representative self-government in the colonies.

Headright System

A policy in Virginia and Maryland that granted 50 acres of land to any colonist who paid for their own or another's passage to the New World; it was used to encourage migration and lead to the growth of large plantations and indentured servitude.

Indentured Servitude

A labor system where individuals (usually poor Europeans) signed a contract to work for a fixed period (usually 4 to 7 years) in exchange for passage to the New World, food, and shelter.

Bacon's Rebellion (1676)

An armed rebellion of frustrated indentured servants and small farmers led by Nathaniel Bacon against Governor Berkeley of Virginia; it accelerated the transition from indentured servitude to chattel slavery as a more 'stable' labor force.

Maryland Act of Toleration (1649)

A law passed in Maryland to ensure religious freedom for all Christians (specifically Catholics and Protestants), though it mandated the death penalty for those who denied the divinity of Jesus.

Plymouth Colony (1620)

The colony settled by Pilgrims (Separatists) who fled England for religious freedom; they sailed on the Mayflower and signed the Mayflower Compact to establish a self-governing community based on majority rule.

Puritans

Religious dissenters who wanted to 'purify' the Church of England of Catholic practices; they founded the Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1630 to create a model 'city upon a hill' guided by strict Calvinist principles.

John Winthrop

The first governor of the Massachusetts Bay Colony, famous for his 'A Model of Christian Charity' sermon, which described the Puritan mission to build a holy community that would serve as a 'City upon a Hill' for the world to see.

Roger Williams

A Puritan minister who was banished from Massachusetts Bay for advocating for the separation of church and state and fair treatment of Native Americans; he founded the colony of Rhode Island as a haven for religious dissenters.

Anne Hutchinson

A religious dissenter in Massachusetts Bay who challenged the authority of the clergy and preached 'antinomianism' (the idea that faith alone is necessary for salvation); she was banished and fled to Rhode Island.

Half-Way Covenant (1662)

A religious policy in New England that allowed the children of partial church members to be baptized; it was designed to keep the younger generation connected to the church as religious zeal declined.

Metacom's War (King Philip's War, 1675-1678)

A bloody conflict between Wampanoag leader Metacom (King Philip) and English colonists; it was one of the deadliest wars in American history and effectively ended large-scale Native American resistance in New England.

Middle Colonies

New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Delaware; known as the 'breadbasket' colonies for their grain production, they were characterized by religious tolerance, ethnic diversity, and a mix of trade and farming.

William Penn

A Quaker who received a land grant from King Charles II to found Pennsylvania; he designed the colony as a 'Holy Experiment' based on religious freedom, pacifism, and fair dealings with Native Americans.

Quakers (Society of Friends)

A Protestant group that believed in the 'Inner Light,' equality for all, and pacifism; they were often persecuted in England and New England before finding refuge in Pennsylvania.

New Netherland

The Dutch colony established in the Hudson River Valley (including New Amsterdam) focused on the fur trade; it was surrendered to the British in 1664 and renamed New York.

Navigation Acts (1651-1673)

A series of English laws designed to regulate colonial trade and reinforce mercantilism; they required certain goods (enumerated goods like tobacco) to be shipped only to England or other English colonies.

Mercantilism

An economic theory that a nation's power depends on its wealth (gold and silver reserves); it encouraged nations to maximize exports and minimize imports, using colonies as sources of raw materials and markets for finished goods.

Salutary Neglect

The unofficial British policy (c. 1700-1763) of avoiding strict enforcement of parliamentary laws, particularly trade regulations, which allowed the colonies to develop their own political and economic systems.

Middle Passage

The horrific leg of the Triangular Trade where enslaved Africans were transported across the Atlantic to the Americas; conditions were characterized by overcrowding, disease, and high mortality rates (10-20\%).

Chattel Slavery

A system of bondage where enslaved people were legally defined as property, not as human beings; this status was hereditary, passing from mother to child, ensuring a permanent and self-sustaining labor force.

Stono Rebellion (1739)

One of the largest slave uprisings in the British colonies, occurring in South Carolina; it led to the passage of stricter 'Slave Codes' to restrict the movement and education of enslaved people.

The Enlightenment

An intellectual movement in the 18th century that emphasized reason, science, and individualism; thinkers like John Locke influenced American political thought regarding natural rights and social contracts.

John Locke

An English philosopher whose ideas on 'natural rights' (life, liberty, and property) and the right of the people to overthrow a tyrannical government became foundational for the American Revolution.

First Great Awakening (1730s-1740s)

A series of emotional religious revivals that swept through the colonies; it led to the growth of new denominations (Baptists, Methodists), a challenge to traditional authority, and a sense of shared American identity.

Jonathan Edwards

A prominent theologian and preacher of the Great Awakening, famous for his sermon 'Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God,' which used vivid imagery of hell to encourage repentance.

George Whitefield

An English evangelist whose charismatic, open-air preaching across all thirteen colonies drew thousands of listeners and was a central figure in the spread of the First Great Awakening.

Old Lights vs. New Lights

The division within colonial churches during the Great Awakening: 'Old Lights' rejected the emotionalism of the revivals, while 'New Lights' embraced the new style of preaching and the conversion experience.

Zenger Trial (1735)

The trial of John Peter Zenger, a New York printer accused of seditious libel for criticizing the royal governor; the jury found him not guilty because his statements were true, establishing an early precedent for freedom of the press.

French and Indian War (Seven Years' War, 1754-1763)

A global conflict between Britain and France (and their respective Native American allies) over control of the Ohio River Valley; Britain's victory gave them control of North America but left them with significant war debt.

Albany Plan of Union (1754)

A proposal by Benjamin Franklin to create a unified government for the thirteen colonies for defense during the French and Indian War; it was rejected by the colonies and the British but served as a model for future cooperation.

Pontiac's Rebellion (1763)

An uprising by a loose confederation of Native American tribes in the Great Lakes region against British expansion following the French and Indian War; it prompted the British to issue the Proclamation of 1763.

Proclamation of 1763

A British decree that prohibited colonial settlement west of the Appalachian Mountains; it was intended to prevent conflict with Native Americans but deeply angered colonists who felt entitled to the land they fought for.

Sugar Act (1764)

A British law that lowered the tax on imported molasses but increased enforcement to stop smuggling; it was one of the first acts to signal the end of Salutary Neglect.

Stamp Act (1765)

A direct tax imposed by Parliament on all printed materials in the colonies (newspapers, legal documents, playing cards); it led to widespread protests and the cry of 'No taxation without representation.'

Sons of Liberty

A secret patriotic organization founded in response to the Stamp Act; led by figures like Samuel Adams, they used protests, boycotts, and occasionally violence (tarring and feathering) to resist British taxes.

Stamp Act Congress (1765)

A meeting of delegates from nine colonies to coordiante a response to the Stamp Act; they drafted a petition to the King asserting that only colonial legislatures had the right to tax the colonies.

Declaratory Act (1766)

An act passed by Parliament alongside the repeal of the Stamp Act, asserting that Britain had the absolute right to tax and legislate for the colonies 'in all cases whatsoever.'

Townshend Acts (1767)

Indirect taxes on imported items such as glass, lead, paper, paint, and tea; the revenue was used to pay the salaries of royal governors, further undermining colonial control over their officials.

Letters from a Farmer in Pennsylvania

A series of essays by John Dickinson arguing that while Parliament could regulate trade, it had no right to levy taxes for the sole purpose of raising revenue without the consent of the colonists.

Boston Massacre (1770)

An incident where British soldiers fired into a crowd of colonists, killing five, including Crispus Attucks. It was heavily sensationalized by Paul Revere and others as propaganda to fuel anti-British sentiment.

Committees of Correspondence

A network of communication organized by Samuel Adams and other patriots to share information about British activities and coordinate resistance throughout the colonies.

Tea Act (1773)

A law that granted the struggling British East India Company a monopoly on tea sales in the colonies; even though it made tea cheaper, colonists saw it as an attempt to trick them into paying the Townshend duty.

Boston Tea Party (1773)

A protest where the Sons of Liberty, disguised as Mohawk Indians, boarded three British ships and dumped 342 chests of tea into Boston Harbor to protest the Tea Act.

Intolerable Acts (Coercive Acts, 1774)

A series of punitive laws passed by Britain in response to the Boston Tea Party; they closed Boston Harbor, suspended the Massachusetts government, and expanded the Quartering Act.

First Continental Congress (1774)

A meeting of delegates from 12 colonies (excluding Georgia) in Philadelphia to protest the Intolerable Acts; they called for a complete boycott of British goods and organized the Continental Association.

Lexington and Concord (1775)

The 'shot heard 'round the world'; the first military engagements of the American Revolutionary War, occurring when British troops attempted to seize colonial gunpowder and arrest rebel leaders.

Second Continental Congress (1775)

The governing body that managed the colonial war effort; they appointed George Washington as commander of the Continental Army and eventually drafted the Declaration of Independence.

Olive Branch Petition (1775)

A final attempt by the Second Continental Congress to avoid war with Britain; it pledged loyalty to King George III and asked him to intervene with Parliament, but the King rejected it.

Thomas Paine's Common Sense (1776)

A highly influential pamphlet that used plain language to argue that it was common sense for the colonies to break away from the corrupt British monarchy and establish an independent republic.

Declaration of Independence (1776)

The document, primarily written by Thomas Jefferson, that formally announced the separation of the thirteen colonies from Britain, articulating Enlightenment ideals of 'unalienable rights' and popular sovereignty.

Patriots

Colonists who supported the cause of American independence from Britain, making up roughly 40-45\% of the population during the Revolution.

Loyalists (Tories)

Colonists who remained loyal to the British Crown, often for economic, religious, or political reasons; they made up roughly 20\% of the population and often fled after the war.

Battle of Saratoga (1777)

A major turning point in the Revolutionary War; the American victory in New York convinced the French to form an open military alliance with the United States.

Battle of Yorktown (1781)

The final major battle of the American Revolution where a combined American and French force trapped General Cornwallis on a peninsula, forcing his surrender.

Treaty of Paris (1783)

The peace treaty that ended the Revolutionary War; it recognized American independence and established the borders of the new United States from the Atlantic to the Mississippi River.

Republican Motherhood

The post-Revolutionary ideal that women played a vital role in the new republic by raising virtuous, educated citizens; it increased educational opportunities for women but relegated their influence to the domestic sphere.

Articles of Confederation

The first constitution of the United States (1781-1789); it created a weak central government with a unicameral legislature and no executive or judicial branches, reflecting fears of tyranny.

Land Ordinance of 1785

A law that established a plan for surveying and selling the federally owned lands west of the Appalachian Mountains, dividing land into townships and setting aside one section for public education.

Northwest Ordinance of 1787

Regarded as the greatest success of the Articles of Confederation, it established a process for admitting new states to the Union, guaranteed civil liberties, and prohibited slavery in the Northwest Territory.

Shays' Rebellion (1786-1787)

An uprising of debt-ridden farmers in western Massachusetts led by Daniel Shays; the central government's inability to put down the rebellion highlighted the fatal weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation.

Constitutional Convention (1787)

A meeting in Philadelphia originally intended to revise the Articles of Confederation; delegates instead chose to scrap them and draft a completely new Constitution with a stronger central government.

James Madison

Known as the 'Father of the Constitution' for his central role in drafting the document and the Bill of Rights; he also co-authored the Federalist Papers.

Virginia Plan

A proposal at the Constitutional Convention for a bicameral legislature where representation in both houses would be based on state population, favoring large states.

New Jersey Plan

A proposal at the Constitutional Convention for a unicameral legislature where each state would have one vote, favoring small states and preserving the structure of the Articles of Confederation.

Great Compromise (Connecticut Compromise)

The agreement that settled the debate over representation; it created a bicameral legislature with a House of Representatives (based on population) and a Senate (equal representation with two senators per state).

Three-Fifths Compromise

An agreement that each enslaved person would be counted as \frac{3}{5} of a person for the purposes of determining a state's representation in the House and for direct taxation.

Slave Trade Compromise

A deal struck at the Constitutional Convention that prohibited Congress from banning the international slave trade for 20 years (until 1808).

Separation of Powers

The constitutional principle where the legislative, executive, and judicial powers of government in separate bodies to prevent any one branch from becoming too powerful.

Checks and Balances

A system that allows each branch of government to limit the powers of the other branches in order to prevent abuse of power (e.g., the Presidential veto, Congressional override, and Judicial review).

Federalism

A system of government in which power is divided between a central (national) government and various regional (state) governments.

Elastic Clause (Necessary and Proper Clause)

Article I, Section 8 of the Constitution, which grants Congress the power to pass all laws 'necessary and proper' for carrying out its enumerated list of powers; it is the basis for 'implied powers.'

Federalists (Constitutional Era)

Supporters of the new Constitution who argued for a stronger central government to maintain order and preserve the Union; they included Hamilton, Madison, and Jay.

Anti-Federalists

Opponents of the Constitution who feared a strong central government would strip individuals of their liberties and states of their power; they demanded a Bill of Rights be added before ratification.

Federalist Papers

A series of 85 essays written by Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay to convince New York voters to ratify the Constitution; they remain a primary source for interpreting the Founders' intentions.

Bill of Rights (1791)

The first ten amendments to the Constitution, added to appease Anti-Federalists; they guarantee individual rights such as freedom of speech, religion, and the press, and the right to a fair trial.