Case study of a country - global governance of sovereignty and territorial integrity has consequences for citizens and places --> Mali

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Mali case study!

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1

Where is Mali?

-Landlocked country in Western Africa
-Its capital city is Bamako
-The main river in Mali is the Niger

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2

Which ethnic groups live in Mali?

-Largest ethnic group = the Bambara (36.5% of total population)
-2nd largest group = the Fulani
-The Tuareg make up 1.7% of the total population of Mali

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3

Who are the Tuareg?

-A group of semi-nomadic herders and traders who live in northern Mali, as well as in Nigeria, Burkina Faso, Algeria and Libya
-Most Tuaregs are Muslim

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4

Brief history of Mali

-Mali Empire formed in 1226 and was the dominant force in the area until the Songhai Empire comes into power (and is then defeated in 1591)
-Mali becomes a colony of France in 1898 and is called French Sudan
-It gains independence from France in 1960

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5

What is Azawad?

-A territory of Mali that occupies 2/3 of the country, spanning the southern part of the Sahara desert and the Sahel
-It is inhabited by many different ethnic groups, including the Tuaregs, Arabs and Songhai

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6

How did the name Azawad come about?

-In the early 1990s, several politico-military groups began to use the name ‘Azawad’ to refer to this area (and also part of Niger)
-They wanted to declare independence from those 2 postcolonial states as they blamed them for abandoning the Tuaregs + people of the north → this is a sovereignty issue as the ineffective governance of the north has caused a separatist movement

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7

What happened in 2012?

-There is a Tuareg rebellion in northern Mali led by the National Movement for the Liberation of Azawad (MNLA)
-This rebellion happened as they wanted to create their own state that would represent their own interests

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8

When was Azawad declared an independent state by the Tuaregs?

April 2012

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9

How did the 2012 rebellion threaten the sovereignty and territorial integrity of Mali?

-It threatened the sovereignty of Mali because it triggered an attempted military coup as they were unhappy with how the government had dealt with the separatist rebellion

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10

What is the role of France in dealing with these sovereignty/territorial integrity issues?

-Malian authorities request the intervention of France after the attempted military coup
-France sent 5,000 troops as part of Operation Serval

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11

What can Mali's challenges to sovereignty and territorial integrity be explained by?

-International borders drawn by European colonial powers in the early twentieth century had little regard for tribal lands → division of the Tuareg people
-Tuareg declaring independence for Azawad
-Conflict between other ethnic groups eg the armed conflict between the Dogon and Fulani who are fighting over the Mopti region in central Mali

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12

What is the aim of global governance strategies in Mali?

-To sustain the global system of sovereign nation-states by restoring Malian sovereignty and territorial integrity
-Both global and regional institutions have intervened

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13

Global governance: What is the UN mission in Mali called, when was it established and what does it do?

-MINUSMA
-Was established in 2013
-Aims to stabilise Mali + protect civilians, re-establish the state’s authority, protect human rights + give assistance to IDPs

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14

Has this been a success? (yes)

-enabled there to be peaceful elections in 2013
-allowed for a peace agreement in 2015 between Malian gov + Tuaregs which gave them more control in the north, better representation in discussions in the capital and recognition of local leaders
-GDP per capita increased to over $2,000 in 2017

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15

Has this been a success? (no)

-9,000 military personnel deployed by UN as part of MINUSMA in 2013
→ this has increased to 15,000 in 2020 → arguably still problems and instability in Mali
-MINUSMA stopped in 2023 as they were asked to leave by the Malian government (which had been taken over by military in a 2021 coup)

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16

Global governance: how have ECOWAS and the African Union been involved?

-Were involved in mediation and the returning of power to civilian administration
-The success of their efforts (alongside the UN + other global groups) is shown in the 2015 peace deal that gave the Tuaregs more authority in the north

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17

Global governance: which NGOs have been involved and how have they helped?

-Population Services International - reproductive health projects
-World Education Mali - addressing educational barriers to literacy
-Solidarites International - rebuilding health centres in the north (Gao and Timbuktu) and helping with water, hygiene, sanitation and food security

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18

Opportunities: stability

-MINUSMA is establishing mechanisms for political, social + economic stability → restoring state control over the north of Mali (shown by peace agreement 2015)
→ provision of military force is designed to minimise terrorist activity + allow for peaceful elections to be set up → hope for long-term peace + stability

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19

Opportunities: growth

-Allowing Mali to reduce its trade deficit by increasing economic diversity + ensuring industries like gold mining (Mali’s biggest export at 72%) are regulated to stop corruption + improve growth
-The World Bank support smallholder farmers by enhancing supply chains in farming and fishing

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20

Opportunities: development

-Reducing the attacks on schools means that more Malian children are attending school - in 2015, the mean years of schooling was 2 but it was 5.2 in 2020 (pre-COVID)
-Other international organisations in co-operation with the Mali government include Water Aid, which works with local communities in urban + rural areas to secure sustainable water supplies and sanitation → a vital opportunity for citizens to become healthier, better educated and more food secure

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21

Challenges: inequality

-There are still socio-economic inequalities between the north and the south → the north is underdeveloped + politically under-represented
-Urban-rural divide in terms of basic infrastructure eg sewers, electricity → many villagers feel abandoned + disconnected from the state
-Deep-rooted cultural and political divisions within/between Tuaregs, Arabs, Songhai + other ethnic groups are a major challenge for peace
→ the international community mistakenly decided to deal with the north as a whole, and this is inaccurate as not all people see Azawad as common territory

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22

Challenges: injustice

-Government fails to protect against human rights abuses, especially against women and young girls who are more likely to experience child marriage, female genital mutilation + domestic violence
→ there are also high rates of maternal + child mortality
-The government’s inability to police its own country has led to high levels of human trafficking, drug smuggling and kidnapping
-There are abductions, killings, bombings + land mines

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