Gymnosperms
"Naked" seed, not enclosed in a fruit. Include conifers, which produce cones during sexual reproduction.
Pollen cone
Male cone, usually smaller in size than a female cone
each scale of the cone contains one microsporangium, which undergoes meiosis to create microspores, which undergo mitosis to produce the microgametophyte
pollen grain
male gametophyte
one of these contains 2 living cells (one is sperm nucleus) and 2 dead cells that form "wings" to help it travel through the air
Life cycle of a seeded plant
seed cone
female cone, usually larger in size than a male cone
each ovule contains one scale, a megasporangium which undergoes meiosis to megaspores, which undergo mitosis to produce the megagametophyte
Megasporangium
black bracket
undergoes meiosis
one in each scale of a seed cone
Megagametophyte
red oval
undergoes mitosis to produce eggs
Archegonium
white layer of cells surrounding eggs
Eggs
2 black arrows
undergo fertilization by combining with sperm to form embryo in seed, which grows into sporophyte
1st spring in seeded plant cycle
scales on ovulate cone are open to allow pollen in
scales close and allow pollen inside
over the next year, the megagametophyte develops and produces eggs while tapped pollen grains wait
2nd spring in seeded plant cycle
sperm fuses with egg and grows into embryo in the seed
seed coat and stored food develop from megasporangium and megagametophyte tissue
Benefits of seed dormancy
seeds can dry out completely and still be alive
seeds can remain dormant for a VERY long time and still germinate when exposed to the proper conditions
Contents of a seed, function, and ploidy
seed coat protects embryo (2n)
food supply provides energy to embryo when seed germinates (n)
embryo is baby plant (2n)
Angiosperm
Seed is covered by a fruit, includes flowering plants
Parts of a flower
stamen (male) (red)
anther (orange)
filament (yellow)
stigma (light green)
style (mid green)
ovary (female) (dark green)
carpel (blue)
petals (purple)
receptacle (pink)
ovule (grey)
sepal (black)
Pollination of flowering plants
Stigma traps pollen from air and it travels through the style to the ovule. Plants with petals rely on pollinators for this, while plants without petals rely on the wind.
Flower is defined as
the presence of stamens and/or carpels, not petals
Double fertilization (flowering plants only)
megagametophyte is only 7 cells
large cell in center is made up of 2 polar nuclei
when this cell is fertilized it is triploid, with 2 sets of eggs and 1 set of sperm chromosomes
this cell grows to form endosperm which provides food in the seed
Main function of fruits
To aid in dispersal. Animals eat fruits and poop out seeds, thereby dispersing plant.
cross section of flowering plant
What is arrow pointing to?
Microspores, which grow into microgametophyte (pollen)
Where can growth only occur in plants? How do cells in those places divide?
Meristems; mitosis
Apical meristems
growth in length
know as primary (1 degree) growth
happens at root tips and shoot tips
Lateral meristems
also called cambium
growth in width
known as secondary (2 degree) growth
trees have a lot, grass has none
Function of root cap
To protect apical meristem
Function of roots hairs on radish seedling
increase surface area for absorption of water/nutrients from soil
Coleus stem tip
leaf primordia
young leaf
shoot apical meristem
bud primordia
Parenchyma
living
relatively thin cell walls
function in storage
may or may not have chloroplasts
pretty big, found in pretty much everything
Collenchyma
found in celery
living
thicker cell walls provide flexible support
smaller cells
Sclerenchyma
found in pear skins and gives them their gritty texture
can be in sclereid (what we saw in lab) and fiber forms
cells dead at maturity
very thick cell walls provide rigid support
Xylem
long, vessel-like structures used for water transport
dead at maturity
Phloem
used for sugar transport
living cells with nucleated companion cells
Leaf epidermis
stoma (yellow arrow)
guard cells (black arrow)
parenchyma (green arrow)
Function of guard cells
Control when stoma open and close, which prevents water loss
Function of stomata
allows for intake of CO2 and excretion of O2
Celery
vascular bundles (black arrow)
parenchyma (yellow arrow)
collenchyma (green arrow)
Potato
leucoplasts (blue arrow)
cell wall (black arrow)
Where leucoplasts are found and their function
Potatoes; starch storage
Pear
slcereid form of sclerenchyma (blue arrow)
parenchyma (black arrow)
Key differences between monocots and dicots
Monocots:
one cotyledon
parallel veins
scattered vascular tissue
Dicots:
two cotyledons
netlike veins
vascular tissue arranged in ring
Ranunculus (dicot root) zoomed in
xylem (black arrow)
phloem (green arrow)
Ranunculus (dicot root) zoomed out
epidermis
cortex
endodermis
vascular cylinder
parenchyma (black arrow)
Midrib Vein
collenchyma
xylem
phloem
Monocot stem vascular bundles
xylem (purple and brown)
phloem (yellow)
sclerenchyma (red)
parenchyma (green)
Dicot stem
sclerenchyma (green)
phloem (white)
xylem (black)
pith (purple)
cortex (blue)
orange (vascular bundle)
epidermis (yellow)
Dicot vascular bundle
sclerenchyma (green)
phloem (white)
vascular cambium (pink)
xylem (black)
parenchyma (blue)
Secondary growth is trees
xylem accumulates each year and makes up most of "wood" of tree
new phloem is produced and becomes part of bark, and older phloem collapses
Hyphae
Thin filaments that make up fungi
Mycelium
All of the hyphae that make up a single fungus individual
Septate hyphae
Walled hyphae
Nonseptate hyphae
Unwalled, coenocytic hyphae
Chitin
Structural polysaccharide that makes up fungal cell walls.
How do fungi digest large food particles?
Cell walls prevent fungi from ingesting large food particles, so fungi must secrete digestive enzymes into its environment that break down the food into smaller particles that the fungi can then absorb.
Saprotroph
most free living fungi are decomposers, AKA
Symbiosis
relationships in which organisms live together (sometimes one inside the other) and are dependent on each other
Mutualism
a relationship between 2 organisms in which both benefit
commensalism
a relationship in which one partner requires and benefits from the relationship but the other is neutral
Parasitism
one partner requires and benefits from the relationship and the other is harmed
ploidy of fungal hyphae
haploid; spores are produced by mitosis
Heterokaryotic
cytoplasm fuses but nuclei do not
Reproductive cycle of fungi
Zygomycota
many molds and mildews; found on strawberries
young zygosporangium of zygomycota
arrows pointing to gametangia
mature zygosporangium of zygomycota
notice diploid nuclei, arrows pointing to gametangia
Ascomycota
produce asexual spores called conidia, which bud off of the tips of hyphae called conidiophores
Penicillium
conidia
conidiophore
Plasmogamy
dikaryotic hyphae result from a plasmogamy between 2 different mating strains. Eventually, these dikaryotic hyphae grow into a fruiting body, in which a karyogamy occurs.
ascocarps
Contain asci (sacs) which contain ascospores
Basidiomycota
plasmogamy results in dikaryotic hyphae (n+n) that develop into basidiocarp in which karyogamy (2n nuclei) and meiosis will eventually occur
mushroom anatomy
cap (blue)
gills, which contain basidia on their surface (pink)
stalk/stipe (yellow)
basidia
Mycorrhizae
mutualistic relationship between fungi and plant roots-- plants provide food for fungus and fungus provides increased absorption of water and minerals from soil as well as growth factors and antibiotics. Mycorrhizal networks connect plants, allowing them to communicate
lichen
mutualistic relationship between fungi and algae. alga provides food and sometimes nitrogen, and fungus provides support, protection, and acquisition of minerals
lichen anatomy
fungal hyphae (yellow arrow)
algal layer (orange arrow)
chi-square (X^2)
hypothesis test that compares collected data to predictions made based on hypothesis. it is used to determine if the deviation between your data and your predictions can be explained by random variation alone
chi-square formula
degrees of freedom formula
for example, if you have 2 phenotypes, the degree of freedom = 1