Unit 0 terms APpsych

biopsychosocial approach

An integrated and comprehensive perspective that considers the interplay of biological (genetic predispositions, brain mechanisms), psychological (thoughts, emotions, learned behaviors), and social-cultural (social expectations, peer and group influences, cultural norms) factors in understanding human behavior or health conditions.

psychiatry

A specialized branch of medicine focused on the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of psychological disorders. Psychiatrists are medical doctors (MDs) who are licensed to prescribe medication and can also provide various forms of psychotherapy.

hindsight bias

The common tendency, after an event has occurred and the outcome is known, to believe that one could have predicted or seen it all along. This phenomenon, also known as the 'I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon,' can affect our perception of past events and judgments.

operational definition

A precise and carefully worded statement that specifies the exact procedures or 'operations' used to define and measure a research variable. For instance, 'human intelligence' might be operationally defined as 'what an intelligence test measures,' allowing for consistent and repeatable measurement in research studies.

replication

The process of repeating the essential components of a research study, typically with different participants in varying situations, to determine if the original findings can be consistently reproduced. Replication is crucial for establishing the reliability and generalizability of research results.

case study

A descriptive research technique that involves an in-depth, intensive investigation of a single individual, group, or event in the hope of revealing broad, universal principles of behavior or psychological processes. While providing rich detail, findings from case studies may not always be generalizable to larger populations.

naturalistic observation

A descriptive research method where researchers observe and record behavior in its natural, unaltered environment without any attempt to manipulate or control the situation. This technique aims to capture authentic behavior as it naturally occurs, minimizing interference from the observer.

longitudinal study

A type of developmental research design that involves observing and retesting the same group of individuals over an extended period of time to track changes and developments. This method is valuable for studying how traits or behaviors evolve with age but can be time-consuming and expensive.

cross-sectional study

A type of developmental research design that compares different groups of people who are of various ages at a single point in time. This method is generally more efficient than longitudinal studies for examining age-related differences, but it cannot track individual changes over time.

survey

A descriptive research technique used to gather self-reported attitudes, beliefs, or behaviors from a particular group, typically by administering questionnaires or interviews to a representative, random sample of that group. Surveys are often used to collect data from large populations efficiently.

population

In research, the entire group of individuals that is the focus of a study, from which samples are drawn for investigation. It refers to the larger group to which researchers intend to generalize their findings (e.g., all high school students, not necessarily a country's entire population).

random sample

A subset of a population selected in such a way that every member of the population has an equal chance of being included. A random sample is crucial for ensuring that the sample fairly represents the larger population, thereby allowing for the generalization of research findings.

sampling bias

A methodological flaw in the sampling process that occurs when certain members of a population are more or less likely to be included in the sample than others. This systematic error results in an unrepresentative sample, which can lead to inaccurate or misleading research conclusions about the broader population.

self-report bias

A type of response bias in which individuals provide inaccurate or distorted accounts of their own behaviors, attitudes, or beliefs. This can occur due to social desirability (wanting to present oneself favorably), memory limitations, or lack of self-awareness.

correlation

A statistical measure that describes the extent to which two factors or variables vary together, and consequently, how well either factor can predict the other. It's important to note that correlation does not imply causation; it only indicates a relationship between variables.

correlation coefficient

A statistical index that quantifies the strength and direction of the linear relationship between two variables. Its value ranges from -1.00 to +1.00. A coefficient near +1.00 indicates a strong positive correlation, near -1.00 indicates a strong negative correlation, and near 0 indicates a weak or no linear relationship.

scatterplot

A graphical representation of the relationship between two quantitative variables. Each point on the graph represents the values of the two variables for a single data unit. The slope of the clustered points indicates the direction (positive or negative) of the relationship, while the amount of scatter around the line suggests the strength (weak or strong) of the correlation.

illusory correlation

The perception of a relationship between two variables where none truly exists, or the perception of a stronger relationship than what actually exists. This cognitive bias often occurs when people focus on instances that confirm their expectations, ignoring contradictory evidence.

control group

In an experiment, this is the group that does not receive the experimental treatment or independent variable. It serves as a baseline for comparison, allowing researchers to evaluate the pure effect of the treatment administered to the experimental group.

experimental group

In an experiment, this is the group that is exposed to the treatment, which is the specific version or level of the independent variable being studied. Researchers observe changes in the dependent variable within this group to assess the treatment's effect.

random assignment

A procedure used in experiments where participants are assigned to either the experimental or control group purely by chance. This technique is critical for minimizing pre-existing differences between the groups, thereby increasing confidence that any observed effects are due to the independent variable rather than confounding factors.

independent variable

In an experimental study, this is the factor that is purposefully manipulated or changed by the researcher. It is the presumed cause in a cause-and-effect relationship, and its effect on the dependent variable is what is being investigated.

confounding variable

A factor, other than the independent variable, that could potentially influence the dependent variable in an experiment. If not controlled for, confounding variables can make it unclear whether observed effects are due to the independent variable or some other extraneous factor, thereby compromising the internal validity of the study.

dependent variable

In an experimental study, this is the outcome measure that is expected to change in response to manipulations of the independent variable. It is the variable that is measured by the researcher to determine the effect of the treatment.

placebo effect

A phenomenon where experimental results are influenced by the participants' expectations or beliefs alone, rather than by the active properties of a treatment. It refers to any improvement or change in behavior or symptoms caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition that the recipient believes to be an active agent.

double-blind procedure

A rigorous experimental control technique where both the research participants and the research staff collecting data are unaware ('blind') of who has received the actual treatment and who has received a placebo. This procedure is commonly used in drug-evaluation studies to minimize bias from participants' expectations and researchers' preconceptions.

validity

The extent to which a test, experiment, or research measure accurately assesses what it is intended to measure or predict. It ensures that the study's conclusions are meaningful and sound. (This concept can include specific types such as content validity, predictive validity, construct validity, etc.)

qualitative research

A research methodology that focuses on collecting in-depth, non-numerical data (e.g., interviews, observations, textual analysis) to understand underlying reasons, opinions, and motivations. It aims to gain rich, detailed insights into a topic rather than to measure or quantify variables statistically.

debriefing

Following an experiment or study, this is the post-experimental explanation of the research to its participants. It involves explaining the study's true purpose, any deceptions used, and ensuring participants' well-being, especially if any discomfort or stress was involved.

informed consent

An ethical principle and procedure requiring researchers to provide potential participants with sufficient information about a study (including its purpose, procedures, risks, and benefits) to enable them to make a voluntary and educated decision about whether or not to participate.

histogram

A bar graph that visually represents the frequency distribution of a continuous variable. The bars touch each other, indicating that the data is continuous, and the height of each bar corresponds to the frequency of data points falling within a specific range or interval.

skewed distribution

A statistical distribution where the data points are not symmetrically distributed around the mean, resulting in a prominent 'tail' on one side. A 'positively skewed' (right-skewed) distribution has a long tail to the right, while a 'negatively skewed' (left-skewed) distribution has a long tail to the left.

standard deviation

A widely used measure of variability that quantifies the average amount by which scores in a data set deviate or spread out from the mean score. A smaller standard deviation indicates that data points tend to be close to the mean, while a larger standard deviation indicates greater variability.

normal curve (normal distribution)

A common, symmetrical, and bell-shaped probability distribution that describes the spread of many types of naturally occurring data. In a normal distribution, most scores cluster around the mean, with fewer and fewer scores occurring toward the extremes. According to the empirical rule, approximately 68\% of data falls within one standard deviation of the mean, 95\% within two standard deviations, and 99.7\% within three standard deviations.

meta-analysis

A powerful statistical procedure that systematically combines the results of multiple independent research studies on a similar topic. By aggregating data from many studies, meta-analysis can provide a more robust and comprehensive conclusion on a given hypothesis than any single study alone.

statistical significance

A statistical statement indicating the probability that an observed result or difference occurred by random chance. When a result is statistically significant (p < 0.05 is a common threshold), it suggests that the observed effect is unlikely to be due to chance and is more likely to represent a real effect or relationship within the studied population.

effect size

A quantitative measure of the magnitude or strength of a phenomenon, such as the relationship between two variables or the difference between two groups.