christianity and religion

What was the Scientific Revolution?

A new way of thinking about the natural world that shaped how modern science works today.
Copernicus published a book that challenged conventional ideas about the geocentric(earth centered) universe
Teachings of the Church were no longer blindly accepted but challenged
Galileo proved that the earth orbits the sun and discovered that there were sunspots on the Sun which contradicted the Aristotelian idea of the perfection of objects in the heavenly spheres.
There was an emphasis on empirical evidence of observation and experiment

What is an empirical approach?

an evidence-based method that draws on observation and experimentation
developed in the 17th C
Used by Francis Bacon, Isaac Newton

what is a rationalist approach?

an approach that uses reasoned thought
developed in the 17thC
Used by Descartes in method of systematic doubt

2 distinctive approaches to gaining knowledge (scientific method)

Deductive- if the premises that lead to the conclusion are true, then there is certainty that the theory is true.
Inductive approach- works from an observation and applies it to a theory. The more evidence there is to suggest the observations are correct, the more likely the theory is to be true.

what does the inductive approach involve?

Observing and collecting evidence
Coming up with a hypothesis based on examination of the evidence
Repeated testing and maybe modification of the hypothesis
Developing a theory
Using deduction to predict what should be the case and setting up tests to verify/falsify the theory

The inductive method can only yield at most a high degree of probability not certainty

what is scientism?

The view that science alone can give true knowledge of reality

science alone can determine what is meaningful and that it will eventually explain everything

what are some Christian responses to the rise of science?

Deism-the belief that a deity set things off e.g. the Big Bang Theory and then left the universe to work according to the laws He created it with. Yet the deity does not act any more than the initial act. Many Christians reject this idea because it goes against important ideas such as the Incarnation, the immanence of God and the miracles of Jesus in the Gospels.
+Offers a religious way of explaining the predictable nature of the universe
-Polkinghorne points out the limit of deism which is that God is regarded as personal -an impersonal god is just an intellectual idea

Existentialism-believe that humans define their own meaning in life, their choices make them what they are. Christian Existentialists see no conflict between religion and science. They are concerned with the meaning and purpose of life and view faith as a matter of personal commitment.
Søren Kierkegaard, one of the earliest existentialists, saw faith as a personal commitment. Paul Tillich believes that christian beliefs and symbols ,use be understood i'm relation to existential life questions so that they are relevant in peoples lives

God of the gaps- in the past and today, some Christians attribute things that they can't explain scientifically to God, as scientific knowledge grows, the need for God decreases. Isaac Newton for example believed that God's role was to make minor adjustments, he adopted the God of the gaps idea.

God of the gaps in more detail

The belief that God can be used to explain things which science cannot, however, as science is increasingly able to explain more and more things, there is less need for God to be the explanation behind those things.
Before science explained these things, they were widely attributed to God:
-different species
-In ancient times, phenomena such as lightning, hail and thunder were thought to be the result of supernatural beings
-The orbiting of planets, which is now known to be caused by gravity
Flew's Parable of the Gardener 1955 can be linked with this argument. If God is part of the explanation of the world, it should be possible to detect God by scientific means. If there is no evidence(which the parable shows that there isn't), his existence fails as a scientific hypothesis. The parable is to show that belief in God is completely unscientific and that the believer will always make an excuse to qualify their meaning of God

Christian responses to the God the gaps argument

-Tillich-says that God should be described as Being-itself, rather than a being, He isn't a being among us that should be used to fill up gaps. God is the means by which the whole world exists. Therefore, the quest for a 'gap' for God is fundamentally mistaken.
-Polkinghorne-God intervenes on the smallest level (at quantum level) and therefore humans can't detect it. Everything in the universe is affected by what happens at quantum levels, therefore, God is active in the world and there is no gap because God is the reason for everything.
-Wiles' view is that God's one act was creation and as a result of this, everything that is happening all the time is because of God, God doesn't intervene in particular events e. g. not miracles as this would be selective.

what is the theory of evolution?

Developed and made well known by Charles Darwin 19thC 1809-82 'On the Species' 1859
Theory uses inductive reasoning as it draws a likely conclusion from evidence.
The belief that all living organisms evolved from one another very slowly over time through a process known as natural selection.
When an organism has desirable characteristics that make it well suited to its environment, it will be able to survive adulthood, reproduce and pass this desirable characteristic onto its offspring, this is natural selection. Over a long period of time, the characteristics are modified to enable the survival of the species which eventually leads to the creation of new species. Then those that are less suited to the environment die out and whole species perish when there are changes to the env, this is known as survival of the fittest.
Evolution is a continuing process, people believe that it is still happening today and all species were different stages of evolution

Darwin's 'The Descent of Man'

Concluded that humans descended from apes-this attacked the Christian concept that humans were unique and made in God's image

evidence supporting the theory of evolution

-The different beaks on finches(on the Galapagos island vs finches he had seen)
-Fossils
-DNA comparisons
-Science of genetics

Darwin's religious views

Eventually lost his religious beliefs because he considered them to be naive.
By the time he was forty, ne no longer believed in Christianity and was an agnostic

What does Red in tooth and claw mean?

Refers to the sometimes violent natural world where predatory animals cover their teeth and claws with the blood of their prey.
For some, this shows that a loving God could not be behind Creation

What were the general Christian reasons for disliking the theory of evolution?

-Goes against the Creation story found in Genesis 1 and 2
-Creation has less/no purpose/intentionality behind it if it came about as a result of mutations
-Less of a difference between humans and animals as humans evolved from animals, therefore do humans still have souls and this challenges the idea that they were made in God's image
Evolution showed that things changed to fit in with the env rather than the env being shaped for their needs, which again, conflicted with the Biblical account that God created the env for the benefit of life forms e.g.Gen1:24-25
-Catholic theologian Karl Rahner 20thC argued humans are made entirely by evolution and God as the two are compatible explanations for the origin of humans

19th century reactions to the Theory of Evolution

-The CofE ridiculed the theory:
They claimed it turned humans into beats as it showed human genetics are ape genetics. It also challenged the idea that humans were created imago dei

-Liberal Anglicans admired the theory:
Claimed evolution was the way in which God designed the world. Hicks theodicy that God produced humanity by evolution in order to maintain an epistemic distance from God. 1889 book 'Lux Mundi' incorporated evolution into its theory. Charles Kingsley 1819-1875 believed that a god who created creatures capable of self development was as noble as the idea of a God who needed to intervene to produce new species

-Some christian's believe natural selection wasn't needed because God intervenes directly when he wants to

-'On the Origin of Species' stirred debate for how the Bible should be interpreted

-At the British association meeting in Oxford in 1860, there was a debate between Wilberforce and T.H Huxley (Darwin's bulldog) on the lack of evidence to show there could be change in species.

Modern Christian reactions to support the Theory of Evolution

-Some Old Earth Creationists accept this theory in regards to all creation except humans
-Liberal Christiand accept the theory
-Some Christians accept the theory and believe that natural selection is the way in which God works and it is nature following the laws He put into place.
-The Catholic church finds that the theory of evolution and Christian beliefs are compatible.

Modern Christian reactions to oppose the Theory of Evolution

-Young Earth Creationists and some Old Earth Creationists reject this theory because it goes against the Genesis account of creation
-Michael Behe's idea of Intellectual Design leads him to reject the theory
-There are gaps in fossil records

What is creationism?

The belief that God created the universe as described by the Bible.
Creation story in GEN 1 and 2
In Genesis, it shows that God created everything e.g. light, darkness, earth, animals and humans

what is Creation science?

The reinterpretation of scientific knowledge in accord with belief in the truth of the Bible regarding Creation

what are the 4 Creationist views

-Young Earth Creationists
-Old Earth Creationists
-Conservative view(Catholic)
-Liberal view

what do YEC(young earth creationists) believe?

-Fundementalist
-Take a literal interpretation of the Creation story, believe God created everything in 6 24h days.
-Believe the earth is between 6,000-10,000 years old
-Archbishop Usher was able to use a complicated procedure based on Biblical records to work out the age of the earth
-Believe that geology must be looked at in terms of Noah's flood and any fossils that are found are a result of the flood and seem older because of the flood. Believe that scientific methods used to work out the age of fossils are wrong
-Biblical teachings says that there was no animal or human death before the Fall and so these fossils must have been deposited after the Fall of man
-This interrogation is defended by Henry Morris who wrote a serious of books promoting 'creation science'

What do Old Earth Creationists believe?

-Fundamentalist view
-Accept the scientific age of the earth as the 6 days could refer to 6 periods 'yom'
-Gap Creationism- believe science proves the Earth is a lot older than the Bible accounts for, Creation was done in 6 periods, believe that there are gaps in the Bible that would account for millions or evn billions of yrs.
-Progressive creationism- accept the scientific estimate for the earth, but believe that new species of plants and animals have appeared because God is still creating
-rejects darwinian evolution in favour of God creating species uniquely

What is the conservative view on Creation

-Believe that as the Bible is written by human beings, some parts need to be understood in their context and need to be interpreted in light of new discoveries
-Believe some things are symbolic
-Catholics support accept the theory of evolution
Evolution can be seen as the mechanism through which God's creation took place.
Ernest Lucas says the Bible's account of creation is 'a form of narrative but one in which truth is put across in a symbolic way'
French philosopher, Pierre Teilhard de Chardin accepted that evolution was part of God's plan-eventually believes that at the Omega Point, everything will become integrated with Christ.

what is the liberal view on Creation

Argue that creation accounts are not literally true but contain religious truths. Sometimes writers used myths to convey their message.
Writers would lack scientific knowledge and they could make mistakes

views on Creationism

Many people dislike Creationism and discount it as being a serious explanation for creation
Richard Dawkins believed that the teaching of Creationism, esp to children is brainwashing

what is intelligent design theory?

-A theory developed by Michael Behe
-Believed that some things are irreducibly complex and had to have always existed in the form that it does otherwise they would not function
For example, the flagella of a bacteria had to always have been there, it can't have evolved therefore which shows that an intelligent designer created it, however, Prof Kenneth Miller showed that many bacteria are able to function w/ certain parts and that his theory is wrong.

What is the Big Bang Theory?

The most widely accepted theory on the origin of the universe (~14 billion years ago)
-Lambda-CDM standard model of Big Bang cosmology has the most support
-Galaxies are moving away from one another and the further away they are, the faster they move apart. The speed of expansion makes it possible to work out the age of the universe
-evidence supporting the theory: CMBR- in 1964, Cosmic microwave background is thermal radiation created at the beginning of the universe and is the oldest light detectable
-The abundance of helium and hydrogen in the universe

What are other views on the origin of the universe?

-Some think that there are multiple universes- a multiverse-if there are infinite universes, then some of them are bound to be ordered.
-Hume believed that the world naturally goes through periods of order and chaos and that we are in a period of order and this has nothing to do with God
-Steady State Theory- Fred Hoyle- belived that the universe has no beginning or end and that new galaxies are continously being formed over time, yet the structure of the universe remains the same.

Christian responses supporting TBBT

-The main point of the Big bang provides evidence that there was a beginning of the universe. God creating light in 1:3 is a metaphor for the Big Bang
-The 'fine-tuning' argument suggests to Christian's that God caused it to happen.
-Old Earth Creationists claim that GEN 1 is compatible with scientific theory. For example, the Hebrew word for day can mean an era not necessarily 24h
-The Catholic Church fully accepts TBBT 1951 Pope Pius XII declared tbbt did not conflict with creation
-God of the gaps approach-God may have created the bang
-Deism-the belief that a deity set things off e.g. the Big Bang Theory and then left the universe to work according to the laws He created it with. Yet the deity does not act any more than the initial act.

Christian responses opposing TBBT

-Goes against the Creation account in GEN 1 as God created the universe, but TBBT suggests that the bang was the creation of matter, time and energy
YEC reject the theory
TBBT suggests that there was a beginning to the universe, but doesn't offer an explanation why. To some Christians, God is a more likely explanation than chance.

Pope Francis quote TBBT

'The Big Bang… does not contradict the intervention of the divine creator but rather requires it'

Quantum theory

-Einsteins theory of relativity and development of quantum theory at the beginning of 20thC radically changed science
-The term quantum theory came about following a discovery by Max Planck in 1900 that radiation travels in 'quanta'
-describes the atomic world in probabilities, based on the observation of very large numbers

Implications of quantum theory for religion

1)God perhaps works in the world by influencing events at the quantum level
Neil Bohr held that uncertainty was built into nature, how would god control or influence such a world?

2)Quantum physics shows that we have some degree of free will

3)The 'many worlds' interpretation of quantum physics
there are many possible states of a measured system, and there is no way of telling which exist and which don't, some physicists suggest a multiverse

Science as a stimulus to Christian ethical thinking

Science is a method of understanding the world based on reason and evidence
Many Christians argue that the world has been organised for the benefit of humankind and it is right to understand and develop ways of improving the human situation.
NML is one approach to extreme medical conditions and is the approach used by catholics.
Utilitarian approach would seek to maximise and happiness and minimise pain
No simple answer because medical technology was not available in the time of Jesus

Moral issues posed by science

Modern medicine:
Has the potential to cure many illnesses and to prolong life of those who are sick but there are ethical questions like when is it right to turn off a life support machine? would it be right to perform a brain transplant?

Potential of genetic modification:
No easy or straightforward way to read the bible to find the answers to modern ethical questions.
Ideas of playing God, immortality

Science and evolutionary ethics:
Survival of the fittest could encourage the strong to control the population and the weak eliminated to secure a better future. Ideas of Nietzsche in people seeing there future in terms of an Ubermensch

Environmental ethics:
scientific advances in farming have an increasing negative effect on the environment. Ideas of dominion and damage to the environment

John Polkinghorne 1930

English Christian scientist who believes that religion and science are complementary.
Wrote several books e.g. 'Science and Providence: God's interaction with the World'
'It is the desire to understand the world that motivates all those who work in fundamental physics. A similar desire is part of the inspiration for the religious conquest'

What are John Polkinghorne's reasons for believing religion and science are compatible?- reason #1

-Believes that an explanation is needed for the fact that the world is comprehensible to us through science. There is no survival value in the fact that we are to make sense of the universe. This understanding of the world suggests that it was God's plan for humans to understand the world. Additionally, believed that there needs to be an explanation for the anthropic principle
-Polkinghorne believed Hume's theory that the universe goes through stages of order and chaos is nothing more than speculation and believed that there is no evidence to support the multiverse theory. String theory seems to give support for multiverse theory and is both metaphysical and speculative, but so is God.
-The rationality of the universe is a reflection of the rationality of the creator

Evaluation of Reason number 1

Science and Creation: The search for understanding

-If this is the only universe then Polkinghorne is almost certainly right in that the fine tuning of the universe is overwhelming evidence in favour of the existence of God
-However multiverse theory is not as speculative as Polkinghorne thinks. Theories such as String theory and Big Bang are speculative and metaphysical in the same sense of God. The dismissal of multiverse theory looks as if Polkinghorne wants to cut out a major objection to his views
-Suggestion of Penrose and Gurzadyn that the radiation suggests an earlier cycle of the universe, intelligent life daisies by chance.
-There is no reasoning for the creator being the christian God

what is the anthropic principle?

The theory that the universe contains all the necessary properties that make the existence of intelligent life inevitable
Polkinghorne believed that God is the explanation for this

What are John Polkinghorne's reasons for believing religion and science are compatible?- reason #2

Science and Providence: God's interaction with the World

God's providence(protective care). This idea is at the heart of God's relationship with the world and humankind
God creates, cares for and sustains life for a purpose. He does this in a way which humans can't detect at a quantum level.
God is not personal without special providence
This is further supported by quantum physics-as there is unpredictability and indeterminism, God could be working at this level
Critics believe that this doesn't help solve the evidential problem of evil as God has the potential to intervene, but He doesn't so why doesn't He?
Problem with providing evidence

What are John Polkinghorne's reasons for believing religion and science are compatible?- reason #3

One World: The Interaction of Science and Theology

religion and science are concerned with understanding and making sense of experience
-religious experiences require special consideration. The differences that are seen from religion to religion are because of cultural conditioning, yet they are all experiences of the same reality
-critics say that this could lead to the conclusion that Christianity is simply a culturally conditioned interpretation of religion and its claims cannot be comapred or assessed like scientific facts

What are John Polkinghorne's reasons for believing religion and science are compatible?- reason #4

The Bible gives evidence for Christian claims about Jesus which can be rationally examined in the same way a scientific theory can be
critics argue that scientific theories arise out of repeated experiments but the claims ab Jesus are made on unrepeatable events, also scientific theories are empirically based, claims about Jesus are matters of belief.

What are John Polkinghorne's reasons for believing religion and science are compatible?- reason #5

People who believe in God make claims ab Him as a result of evidence and therefore they can be treated the same as scientific claims
Therefore Christianity is compatible with science as they are both different ways of understanding reality
Critics argue that this point at best points to deism, not theism. Also, the specific claims ab Jesus cannot have scientific basis and are based on belief

what is a flaw with Polkinghorne's beliefs?

There is one scientific claim that Christians can make, 'there is a God'. This is a scientific hypothesis based on the fact that the universe exists, is intelligible and arguably has a cause external to itself. This claim however, can be made by any religion and doesn't point to the Christian God.

John Polkinghorne quotes

'the rational transparency and beauty of the universe are surely too remarkable to be treated as just happy accidents'
'subtly… he is at work within the flexibility of its process'(referring to God's intervention in the universe)
'The use of scripture is closely akin to the handling of evidence in observational science'

What is genetic engineering?

The direct manipulation of genes of humans, animals and plants for several different purposes e.g. agriculture and health

what are some possibilities offered by genetic engineering?

-Could lead to treatments being developed for currently incurable diseasses e.g. CF, Alzheimer's disease and Down syndrome
-Could become possible for humans to select the DNA that would lead to their offspring being super-intelligent or superfit- known as transhumans
-Genetically modified animals have produced a human protein in their milk that has been used to treat some people with lung disease
-Crops have been genetically modified to produce larger crop yields and to be disease resistant which could help address the problem of global hunger
-Transhumans, humans genetically engineered to have advanced intellectual, physical and psychological powers

Oncomouse and it's complications

An oncogene is a gene with the potential to cause cancer and oncology is the study and treatment of tumours.
Oncomouse was genetically modified to carry an activated oncogene for the purpose of oncology research
For some this oversteps they mark of what is morally acceptable, especially where it interferes with the nature of animals

Dame Mary Warnock's view

That whilst christian's may make personal ethical decisions based on the teachings of their faith, they can only extend decisions to wider society if they can justify them using reason and experience available to anyone, religious or not

The human genome project

the attempt to map all the human chromosomes
This would give us the ability to identify and isolate the genes responsible for conditions such as down's syndrome. The problem is the responsibly as it has the potential to engineer human structures beyond recognition

What are Christian responses to genetic engineering?

-There is some support for genetically modified crops as they can help tackle global hunger, however, some are concerned about the possibility of reducing biodiversity
-Concern ab genetic modification of animals among Catholics as this can be seen as contrary to NML
-For Catholis and Protestants there are some concern ab xenotransplantation and how it could transfer animal diseases to humans
-Somatic-cell therapy is generally accepted, seen as a responsible use of God-given skills, benefits need to justify the costs
-Concern ab germline therapy, if mistakes are made, can be passed down the generations
-enhancement therpay- designed to create a superior human species-rejected by Catholics and many Protestants because it means humans would no longer be made in God's image, would promote idolatory, lead to children being viewed as commodity not a gift and would lead to discimination as not everyone would be able to afford it

what is somatic-cell therapy?

Gene therapy that targets the body cells in the affected tissues. Changes do not pass on to replicated cells, and do not pass on to offspring of the patient

what is germline therapy?

therapy intended to correct genetic disorders by genetically modifying sex cells. This affects not only the person being treated, but their descendants

what is enhancement therapy?

genetic modification with a social not medical purpose. It is aimed at improving the human race in terms of intelligence, physical strength and appearance.

Fletcher's views on genetic engineering

-Believed that the proper controls to prevent abuse and exploitation must be put in place, but he viewed these things positively
-Believed that rules and principles based on outdated and irrelevant biblical texts should be set aside
-He foresaw a time in the future when overpopulation or shortage of natural resources would necessitate the genetic modifications of humans to enable them to live in vastly different conditions of space.

Fletcher quote genetic engineering

'the more rationally contrived and deliberate anything is the more human it is'
'needs are the moral stabilisers not rights'(saying that whatever humans need sould be priorised over human's rights e.g. if healthy ppl need to be used in order to meet a need, this should be done)