Crim 101 glossary

absolute deprivation

Low income or poverty in and of itself.

active audiences

The concept that audiences are not passive recipients of information or meanings but are instead active in the process of creating meaning.

actual victim

A person who is the direct target of victimization.

actus reus

The criminal act or personal conduct relating to a crime; it may include a failure to act but does not include the mental element of a criminal offence.

acute dynamic factors

Individual characteristics associated with the risk of reoffending that are rapidly changing and include factors such as intoxication and mood.

administrative monetary penalty (AMP)

A non-criminal penalty issued by a regulatory body, without court approval, for the violation of a law it administers.

anarchism

A political and social perspective that rejects the necessity of imposed rule by external authorities such as the state. From the Greek an archos, it means the absence of rulers, though not the absence of rules. Anarchism has influenced critical criminology generally, and post-structural and peace-making criminology and restorative justice specifically.

anomie

A term coined by Durkheim to describe periods of lawlessness, normlessness, and unrestrained choice, or a breakdown in social solidarity.

anomie-strain theory

Merton’s theory describing the state of anomie in American society caused by the disjunction (or dysfunction or strain) between the cultural goals of the “American dream” and the institutional means to achieve those goals.

anti-social personality disorder (APD)

A personality disorder characterized by a lack of morality, impulsivity, and aggressive behaviour; individuals with APD often have a history of criminal behaviour.

assault

Applying force on a person, attempting to or threatening to apply force on a person, or using a weapon (or imitation of a weapon) to accost or impede a person.

atavism

A term associated with Cesare Lombroso and the Positivist School of thought; the notion that criminals are less evolved than “normal” humans.

attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)

A condition that includes a combination of behaviours, such as difficulty sustaining attention, hyperactivity, and impulsive behaviour.

behaviourism

A learning theory that suggests all behaviour can be shaped by rewards and punishment.

blame continuum

The range of blaming possibilities, from total guilt to total innocence, of both the victim and the victimizer.

blockchain

A continuously growing list of records (blocks) or a chain of transactions on a public transaction system that functions as a distributed ledger that is linked and secured using cryptography.

bounded rationality (limited rationality)

Decisions are often made imperfectly as best guesses given available information and time constraints. Decisions are “bounded” by the limits of our knowledge and circumstances, and so our rationality is bounded.

break and enter

A type of property crime where the accused trespasses on private property with intent to commit a crime.

bribery

The practice of illegally inducing a person, company, or government to act in one’s favour, usually by transferring money or property.

card not present fraud

A form of fraud usually carried out over the telephone or the Internet when a stolen or forged credit card is used to purchase a good or to acquire a service.

Chicago School

The first school of sociology in the United States; contributed to social disorganization theory, cultural transmission theory, differential association theory, subcultural theory, the sociology of deviance, and symbolic interactionism.

child exploitation

A photographic, film, video, or other visual representation, whether or not it was made by electronic or mechanical means, that shows a person under the age of 18 engaged in explicit sexual activity or the dominant characteristic of a sexual organ or the anal region of a person under the age of 18.

choice theory

The framework for understanding how decisions are made by individuals by weighing the perceived costs and benefits of an action.

civil commitment

Also known as “involuntary commitment,” the legal process by which a person is detained after serving a sentence due to concerns that he or she will commit further crimes.

civil law

A system in which the law is primarily set out in legislation, and judges’ discretion is limited to interpretation and application of those written provisions.

Classical School of criminology

A body of work that emerged in Europe in the 17th and 18th centuries that argued people have the capacity to think rationally; contemporary deterrence theory is rooted in this school of thought.

clearance rates

The proportion of criminal incidents solved by the police. A crime is cleared when the police believe they have found its perpetrator.

collective efficacy

A group’s shared belief that it can come together and achieve desired goals.

common law

A body of law defined primarily through successive decisions of judges, as opposed to through legislation.

community and social support factors

The people and resources that support the individual experiencing traumatic stress; that is, community members, family, and friends that serve to insulate the community and its members from traumatizing events through prevention and/or by fostering resilience.

compositional effect

The combination of parts that make up something. In neighbourhoods, a compositional effect refers to the aggregate characteristics of individual residents.

CompStat

COMPuter STATistics; the name given to the New York City Police Department’s accountability process that was introduced in the 1990s to facilitate a reduction in crime.

computer crime

Crime in which a computer or computer network is the target.

computer-facilitated crime

Crime in which computers are used as a tool.

computer-supported crime

Crime in which computers do not play a central role but may contain evidence.

computer tomography

A medical technique combining X-rays taken at many different angles and computer technology.

concordance rate

In a random sample of pairs, the proportion of pairs that share a certain characteristic.

conditioning factors

Factors that shape the impact of a certain cause or correlate of crime.

conflict theories

Theories, originating primarily with Marx, that focus on the unequal distribution of power in society—for example, due to class, race, or gender. Conflicts between classes or groups are driven to a large extent by this unequal power and unequal access to resources.

consensus theories

In opposition to conflict theories, consensus theories, which originate with Durkheim, hold that society functions through social bonds and collective beliefs, and is characterized by widespread acceptance of values, norms, and laws.

constructionist

Constructionist perspectives emphasize the idea that life does not come with categories and labels, and that we understand and define the world on the basis of our socialization and interactions with others.

contextual effect

The influence of environmental factors on human behaviours.

corporate social responsibility (CSR)

A theory of corporate self-regulation whereby companies actively pursue compliance with the law and ethical norms as a part of doing business.

correlates

In criminology, factors that are associated with or related to crime.

correlation

The finding that two measurable phenomena occur together, suggesting a relationship but not necessarily one of direct cause and effect.

cortical arousal

Activation of the reticular formation of the brain.

counterfeiting

Producing imitation currency without legal sanction of the government; it is a form of fraud.

countering violent extremism (CVE)

Non-coercive strategies to reduce violent extremism and terrorism.

crime funnel

A model indicating that the actual total quantity of crime is much higher than the decreasing proportion that is detected, reported, prosecuted, and punished.

crime opportunity theory

An umbrella term for the set of theories and concepts that are underpinned by the notion that the level of crime opportunities is the main cause of crime.

crime pattern theory

A theory that helps explain how crime patterns arise; it asserts that crime is not random. Its concepts (for example, nodes, paths, and edges) describe how offenders move in the urban environment.

crimes of morality

Illegal activities that are against the law because they are regarded as threatening to values.

criminal justice system

The various institutions and processes through which an offender passes, such as the police, the courts, and correctional facilities and programs.

criminal law

The entire set of principles, procedures, and rules established by governments through the courts and criminal legislation in order to ensure public safety. It includes definitions of crimes, criminal responsibility, punishments, and defences to a criminal charge.

criminality

The state of being criminal; criminal acts or practices.

criminalization

To define an act as a crime and thereby subject that act to formal punishment.

criminology

The study of crime and criminal behaviour, which are defined by reference to criminal law.

critical criminology

A school of thought with multiple subfields but largely concerned with social justice and inequality, promoting active opposition to the status quo, and favouring larger-scale societal transformations rather than minor policy changes.

critical race theory

A theory that examines the ways in which race and racial power are constructed by law and society, and that sees the law and criminal justice system not as solutions but as part of the problem.

critical thinking

The process of evaluating information, claims, or arguments through careful questioning and the application of reason.

crypto-currency

A digital currency in which encryption techniques are used to secure and make the virtual asset and transaction anonymous.

culpable

Deserving of blame; guilty of wrongdoing.

cultural transmission theory

The Chicago School notion that criminal subcultures develop their own subcultural (criminal) values or norms, which are then transmitted from gang member to gang member and from generation to generation.

cyberbullying

Bullying through the use of communication technologies.

cybercrime

The use of cyberspace or computer technology to facilitate acts of crime and deviance.

cyberstalking

The use of the Internet or other electronic communication devices to stalk another person, which includes harassing or threatening behaviour that an individual engages in repeatedly.

cyberwarfare

Computer- or network-based conflict that involves a politically motivated attack by a nation-state or international organization.

dangerousness

The capacity of a person to physically, psychologically, or morally harm oneself or others. It includes an estimation of both the severity and likelihood of harm.

dark figure of crime

Refers to the variation between the number of crimes that occur and the number of crimes that are actually reported to the police. This figure highlights the large number of unreported crimes.

decriminalization

The removal of criminal penalties, though fines may still apply.

demographics

Statistical data relating to characteristics of a population, such as relative size of age groups, gender balance, or any other measurable information.

denunciation

A formal expression that conduct is unacceptable.

deradicalization

The process of change in an individual’s radical belief system in which the person rejects extremist ideology and adopts more moderate and non-violent views.

designing-out

The concept that crime prevention can start at the design process so that products and places are designed with potential criminal threats or opportunities in mind.

determinism

The doctrine that one’s will is not the sole cause of choices, but that those choices are conditioned or determined by factors external to one’s will.

deterrence

A principle of sentencing or punishment intended to discourage citizens from offending or reoffending.

deterrence theory

A theory based on the idea that for punishment to be effective, it must be swift, sure, and certain.

deviance

Behaviour that differs from accepted social norms; it may include acts that violate specific rules (crime), sexual behaviours, or non-criminal acts that challenge accepted values.

differential association theory

Sutherland’s theory that criminal behaviour is learned through the process of social interaction and that the process includes the learning of criminal skills, motivations, attitudes, and rationalizations.

direct victim

A person who is present at the time of victimization and experiences harm.

discourses

Refers to forms of language, representation, and practices and how meaning is created and shared. Discourses take place within specific cultural and historical contexts.

disengagement

The process of leaving terrorist or violent extremist involvement.

dispositional theories

Theories that seek to explain variations between individuals in their tendency or disposition to commit crime. Explanations are usually biological or psychological.

dopamine

A neurotransmitter that controls the reward and pleasure centres of the brain.

drug cartel

A criminal organization, often highly organized and with many partnerships, involved primarily in the trafficking of illegal drugs.

duress

An unlawful threat or coercion used by one person to induce another to perform some act against his or her will.

dynamic factors

Individual characteristics associated with the risk of reoffending that are amenable to change and are targets for treatment (for example, attitudes tolerant to criminal behaviour and criminal associates). A reduction in dynamic factors is associated with a decreased risk for recidivism.

ego

An aspect of Freud’s theory of personality; the aspect of personality that helps negotiate the demands of the real world.

embezzlement

To take money or misappropriate funds that belong to someone else.

empirical

That which is understood or verified through experiment, measurement, or direct observation; as opposed to theoretical.

environment

The external conditions, resources, and stimuli a person interacts with.

environmental criminology

A term coined by C. Ray Jeffery; it focuses on the environment (including targets, guardians, and places) as a key area of interest in understanding how and why crime occurs.

eugenics

Methods to improve populations by controlling breeding to increase the occurrence of desirable heritable characteristics.

extortion

The crime of demanding money from someone using force or threats.

extraversion (E)

A person’s activity level; people high in extraversion enjoy social interaction and being around groups of people, while people low in extraversion generally prefer solitude and quiet conversations with those close to them.

feeble-mindedness

A term used in the 19th century to describe individuals with low intelligence or low IQ.

femicide

The act of killing a woman.

fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD)

The range of disorders that can arise in a child if the child’s mother drank alcohol while pregnant. It is a leading cause of preventable developmental disability in Canada.

folk devils

Originating in images from folklore, this term refers to people or groups presented in media as deviant outsiders and the cause of social problems.

foreign fighter

Anyone who, motived by ideology, religion, and/or kinship, travels to a country other than their own for the purpose of joining a non-state, armed group in an armed conflict abroad.