Issues and debates

What are the 6 issues and debates?

1. gender and culture bias

2. free will and determinism

3. the nature vs nurture debate

4. holism and reductionism

5. idiographic and nomothetic approaches

6. ethical implications

Define gender bias and give an example

The differential treatment and/or representation of males and females, based on stereotypes rather than real differences.

Example: Diagnosis of schizophrenia. Longenecker → since 1980’s men have been diagnosed with schizophrenia more often than women. Female patients typically function better than men, being more likely to work and have good family relationships (Cotton). This high functioning may explain why some women have not been diagnosed with schizophrenia where men with similar symptoms might have been.

Define androcentrism

Refers to theories which are focused on males (male orientated view of the world).

Example: Milgram’s and Asch’s original studies were both carried out on all-male samples → assumed the results of their studies would equally apply to females.

Define gynocentrism

Refers to theories which are focused on females. It is the opposite of androcentrism and is not very common in psychology.

Example: Moscovochi used an all female sample

Define alpha bias and give an example

Refers to theories which exaggerate the differences between males and females.

Example: Evolutionary theory emphasises the difference between what each gender looks for in a partner. Males look for youth and attractiveness, whereas females look for wealth and status. However, it is likely that both men and women look for similar attributes such as kindness and loyalty in their partner.

Define beta bias and give an example

Refers to theories which ignore or minimise sex differences.

Example: Biological research into the fight or flight response has been carried out using male animals. It was assumed that this would not be a problem as the fight or flight response would be the same for both sexes. Taylor found that females adopt a ‘tend and befriend’ response in stressful situations. Women are more likely to protect their offspring (tending) and form alliances with other women (befriending) rather than fight and adversary or flee. This suggests that the fight or flight response is not a universal one.

How can beta bias be prevented?

1. including ppts from both sexes in their research.

2. making it clear in reporting that any conclusions relates only to the gender of the sample. (only on the mark scheme for beta bias only).

What are the differences between alpha and beta bias?

Alpha bias exaggerates the differences between males and females, whereas beta bias minimises or ignores sex differences.

Define universality

Assumption that findings/theories from a study can be applied equally to both genders, irrespective of the sample used.

What are the evaluation points for gender bias

Gender bias comes from institutional sexism

Psychology struggles with full objectivity

Feminist approaches help fix gender imbalance

Beta bias assumes men and women are the same

Gender bias comes from institutional sexism

P: Gender bias is a problem in the research process and may result from institutional sexism.
E: Even though more women study psychology, men dominate most senior academic roles. This can shape research priorities around male perspectives, potentially ignoring female experiences.
E: Research results may reflect methodological bias rather than real gender differences. For example, Rosenthal (1966) found male researchers were more friendly to female participants, which led to male participants performing worse— affecting validity. Feminists argue lab settings disadvantage women, as they don’t reflect real-world experiences. Eagly & Johnson (1990) found leadership styles appeared more similar between both men and women in real-life settings than in lab studies.
L: This suggests some psychological research may lack validity and offer gender-biased explanations of behaviour.

Psychology struggles with full objectivity

P: Gender bias is a concern in psychology because researchers can rarely be fully objective.
E: Researchers may be influenced by their own gender, consciously or unconsciously, which can shape how they interpret data. However, most modern researchers now reflect on these biases in their discussion sections.
E: This practice, known as reflexivity, is a positive step forward in psychology. It raises awareness of personal biases and encourages researchers to acknowledge how their own values and assumptions affect their work. For example, Dambrin & Lambert (2008), in studying the lack of women in accountancy leadership, reflected on how their own gender experiences shaped their interpretations.
L: This shift toward reflexivity helps reduce gender bias and promotes more thoughtful, transparent research.

Feminist approaches help fix gender imbalance

P: A feminist approach can help reduce gender bias by challenging imbalances in psychological theories and research.
E: Feminist psychology acknowledges biological sex differences but argues that social stereotypes play a bigger role in shaping perceived gender differences. For example, evolutionary theories of mate selection may reflect outdated Victorian values more than actual biological differences.
E: Recognising gender bias also has real-world benefits. Eagly (1978) argued women are seen as less effective leaders—not to reinforce this view, but to encourage leadership training that tackles the underrepresentation of women in leadership roles.
L: This approach not only challenges biased theories but also promotes change in society by addressing the impact of stereotypes.

Beta bias assumes men and women are the same

P: Beta bias assumes men and women are the same, which can lead to issues in psychological research and wider society.
E: While promoting equality, this view can ignore women's unique needs and the power imbalance between genders.
E: This becomes a problem in practice—for instance, equal parental leave laws may seem fair but overlook the biological realities of pregnancy and childbirth, disadvantaging women. However, beta bias has also contributed positively by promoting equal treatment in areas like education and employment. It has encouraged re-evaluation of gender norms and helped address neglected topics like childcare, dual-burden roles, and prostitution.
L: So, while beta bias can obscure important differences, it has also driven progress in legal and social equality through feminist critique and research.

Define culture bias and give an example

The tendency to judge people in terms of one’s own cultural assumptions. Real cultural differences are ignored/minimised.

Diagnosis of schizophrenia → African Americans and people of Afro-Caribbean origin in the UK are diagnosed with schizophrenia at much higher rates than white individuals, despite schizophrenia not being especially common in Africa or the West Indies. This suggests the difference is unlikely due to genetics and more likely linked to cultural bias in diagnosis. For example, in some African cultures, hearing voices may be culturally accepted due to beliefs in ancestral communication. When such experiences are shared with psychiatrists from different cultural backgrounds, they may be misinterpreted as symptoms of mental illness, highlighting how cultural misunderstandings can lead to biased diagnoses.

4o

What are individualistic and collectivist cultures?

Individualistic → stress the needs of the individual over the needs of the group.

Collectivist → emphasise the needs and goals of the group over the needs and desires of the individual.

Define ethnocentrism and give an example

Seeing the world only from ones own cultural perspective → belief that this one perspective is both normal and correct. Inadvertent lack of awareness that other ways of seeing behaviour can be as valid as your own. Implication of this is that one ethnic group is superior to all others.

Give examples of ethnocentrism from attachment and relationships

Attachment → Ainsworth’s Strange Situation is considered ethnocentric because it was developed based on American cultural norms and assumes these apply globally. For instance, German children often appear more insecure-avoidant, not due to parental insensitivity but because independence is culturally encouraged. This shows the test may not accurately assess attachment across all cultures and shouldn’t be used universally.

Relationships → Most research supporting theories of relationships and attraction comes from Western samples, but cultural differences play a key role. In some cultures, arranged marriages are common and successful, and partner choice may focus more on practical factors like wealth to support the family. These priorities differ significantly from Western views, which emphasise romantic attraction and are reflected in theories like the matching hypothesis and equity theory.

Define universality and give an example

All behaviours apply equally across the world → findings can be generalised globally. Western culture only reflects western cultural norms.

Attachment → Ainsworth’s Strange Situation lacks universality as it was developed based on American cultural norms and assumes these are applicable worldwide. For example, German children often show higher rates of insecure-avoidant attachment—not because their parents are less sensitive, but because independence is culturally valued. This suggests that the Strange Situation may not accurately measure attachment in all cultures, highlighting its limited universal applicability.

Define cultural relativism

The idea that a behaviour can only be properly understood in the context of the norms and values of the society or culture in which it occurs. Norms and values are typically specific to a culture and it is usually inappropriate to study only one culture then make generalisations.

What is an emic approach?

Research on a single culture to understand it within a local context, this isn’t then generalised to other cultures; instead it looks at variations and contrasts them.

What is an etic approach?

Research across a number of cultures to discover that elements of behaviour might be universal e.g. we all use language, have children - form attachments, are aggressive.

Define imposed etic

Imposing the judgements and values of one culture onto another!

What are ways in which researchers might reduce cultural bias in their research?

• Do not try to extrapolate findings/theories to cultures that are not represented in the research sample.

• Use researchers who are native to/familiar with/immersed in the culture being investigated.

• Carry out cross-cultural research rather than research with a sole culture.

• Do not assume universal norms/standards across different cultures.

• Be sensitive to cultural norms/standards when designing research/reporting findings.

• Study single culture to understand that culture (emic approach).

• Taking a reflexive approach i.e., constantly reflecting on own biases when carrying out research.

What are the evaluation points for culture bias

Recognising Cultural Bias in Research

The Real-World Harm of Cultural Bias

Cultural Bias and Indigenous Psychologies

Questioning Cultural Distinctions

Recognising Cultural Bias in Research

P: One way to reduce cultural bias is to acknowledge when it happens.
E: Smith & Bond (1998) found that 66% of studies in a European social psychology textbook were American, and only 2% came from the rest of the world. Similarly, Henrich et al. (2010) found that 67% of research participants were American psychology students, making them 4,000 times more likely to be studied than non-Western individuals.
E: This shows that psychological research is often unrepresentative. Including a wider range of cultural groups can improve the accuracy of findings. Recognising cultural bias helps psychologists design more inclusive and valid studies.
L: Therefore, awareness of cultural bias is the first step toward reducing its impact in psychological research.

The Real-World Harm of Cultural Bias

P: Culturally biased research can lead to harmful real-world consequences by reinforcing stereotypes.
E: A key example is the US Army IQ test used before WWI, which was biased towards white Americans. The results ranked African Americans lowest in intelligence, followed by European immigrants.
E: These results contributed to damaging public attitudes and policies, showing the serious effects biased research can have. Since much research is based on middle-class, Western participants, it doesn’t reflect global behaviours.
L: Recognising this bias is essential to prevent future harm and create more accurate, respectful psychological understanding.

Cultural Bias and Indigenous Psychologies

P: Growing awareness of cultural bias has encouraged the development of indigenous psychologies.
E: Afrocentrism, for example, argues that psychological theories for Black people must consider African cultural roots. It challenges the idea that European values are universal.
E: This has led to more culturally relevant theories, not only for those in Africa but also for those in the African diaspora. This shift supports cultural relativism and promotes an emic (culture-specific) approach rather than a universal (etic) one.
L: Indigenous psychologies highlight the importance of understanding behaviour within cultural contexts and are a major step in addressing bias.

Questioning Cultural Distinctions

P: Some psychologists argue that traditional cultural distinctions may no longer apply in today’s globalised world.
E: Cultures were often labeled as individualist (e.g. the US) or collectivist (e.g. China), but this may be outdated. Takano & Osaka (1999) found that in 14 out of 15 studies comparing the US and Japan, this distinction didn’t hold up.
E: This suggests that cultural bias might not be as significant today due to increased cultural mixing and communication.
L: As globalisation continues, rigid cultural categories may become less useful in understanding human behaviour.

Define free will and give an example

The view that people can control their behaviour by making choices and so can override any biological or environmental influences.

Addiction/psychopathology CBT → Psychologists who use cognitive behavioural therapy encourage patients to change their irrational and negative cognitions. CBT is effective in treating addiction and depression which suggests that we have free will over our cognitive biases which are causing the maladaptive behaviour.

Define determinism

This is the view that free will is an illusion, and that our behaviour is governed by internal or external forces over which we have no control. Consequently, our behaviour is viewed as predictable.

The following are classed as strongly determinist views:

• Peoples’ behaviour always has a cause.

• People have no choice about how to act.

Define soft determinism

Soft determinism → the view that behaviour is constrained by the environment or biological make-up, but only to a certain extent and that there is an element of free will in all behaviour.

Give examples of soft determinism

SLT → suggests that thought processes mediate between stimulus and behaviour. This approach takes a soft deterministic line as it acknowledges that reinforcement affects behaviour, but that there are cognitive processes that moderate the response.

Biopsychology (stress) → The autonomic nervous system causes automatic responses, which is determinist. However, in less extreme situations like traffic jams or workplace pressure, we have some choice in how we perceive stress. Since hardiness can be taught, it suggests we have free will in how we respond to stress.

Define hard determinism

Hard determinism → the view that forces outside of our control (e.g., biology or past experience) shape our behaviour. Hard determinism is seen as incompatible with free will.

What are two forms of hard determinism

Biological determinism

Environmental determinism

What is biological determinism

Biological determinism → the view that all human behaviour is innate and determined by genes.

Give examples of biological determinism

Biopsychology - localisation of function → The idea that specific brain areas control certain behaviours. For example, the motor cortex controls voluntary movement, so damage to it can cause loss of movement control. This shows that some behaviours are determined by brain structure and are not under individual control.

Relationships → The evolutionary argument suggests that partner choice is driven by the need to secure an evolutionary advantage. It argues that we are naturally attracted to people who can provide and care for healthy offspring. This view is deterministic, as it implies that we have no control over these attractions—they are instinctive and driven by biological needs.

Psychopathology → The biological approach suggests that OCD is genetic. Nestadt et al. (2000) found that people with first-degree relatives who have OCD are five times more likely to develop OCD themselves at some point in their lives

What is environmental determinism

Environmental determinism → the view that behaviour is caused by forces outside the individual. Consequently, behaviour is caused by previous experience learned through classical and operant conditioning.

Give examples of environmental determinism

Psychopathology → The behaviourist approach suggests that phobias are acquired through classical, and maintained through operant, conditioning.

Addiction/ Psychopathology: Learning Theory → The cue reactivity paradigm suggests that a strong association is made between a stimulus that is present when an individual smokes and their (powerful) emotional response. Consequently, whenever the stimulus is present, the emotional response is cued which prompts the addictive behaviour. This is seen as out of the individual's control.

What is psychic determinism?

Claims that human behaviour is the result of childhood experiences and innate drives (id, ego, and superego) put forward by Freud’s model of psychological development.

Why is determinism favoured over free will in scientific psychology?

Scientific psychology focuses on causal explanations, meaning behaviour must be shown to result from factors outside the individual's control. This supports determinist theories, which are tested using lab experiments—if the DV changes while EVs are controlled, the IV is seen as the cause.

Determinism is preferred because it allows psychologists to predict and control behaviour, which suits the goals of science. Free will is harder to support scientifically as it's a non-physical concept, making it difficult to measure or test, and therefore clashes with psychology’s scientific basis.

What are the evaluation points for free will and determinism

Determinist approach is consistent with the aims of science

Neither biological or environmental determinism is supported by strong evidence

Determinist explanation tend to oversimplify human behaviour

Individuals don’t view themselves as responsible for their own behaviour

Determinist approach is consistent with the aims of science

P: A key strength of determinism is that it aligns with the scientific approach.
E: The idea that behaviour follows laws puts psychology on the same level as other sciences. Determinist research has also led to effective treatments and therapies—like drug treatments used to manage schizophrenia.
E: These practical outcomes show the real-world value of determinist approaches in improving lives.
L: This makes determinism a strength in psychology, as it supports scientific credibility and delivers useful applications.

Neither biological or environmental determinism is supported by strong evidence

P: A limitation of both genetic and environmental determinism is that neither is fully supported by strong evidence.
E: For instance, studies on MZ twins show around 80% concordance for intelligence but only 40% for depression.
E: Since identical twins share 100% of their genes, the variation in concordance suggests other factors—like the environment—play a role. This challenges biological determinism as a complete explanation. However, the high concordance also means environment alone can’t explain behaviour either, indicating a genetic influence.
L: Therefore, both genetic and environmental determinism are limited because they overlook the complex interaction between genes and environment.

Determinist explanation tend to oversimplify human behaviour

P: A major limitation of determinist explanations is that they often oversimplify complex human behaviour.
E: While such explanations might suit non-human animals—like explaining a peacock’s mating through biology—human behaviour is influenced by thoughts, emotions, and social factors that can override biological drives.
E: This makes determinist explanations less valid when applied to humans, as they ignore the full range of influences on behaviour.
L: Therefore, determinism may fail to capture the complexity and flexibility of human behaviour.

Individuals don’t view themselves as responsible for their own behaviour

P: An implication of determinism is that it challenges the idea of personal responsibility for behaviour.
E: If behaviour is shaped by external or biological forces, individuals may not be held accountable for their actions. For example, in the US, Stephen Mobley claimed he was "born to kill" due to inherited aggression after murdering a pizza shop manager in 1981. Although his defence failed, it raised ethical concerns about using determinism in legal contexts.
E: This is a limitation because determinism could be misused to excuse harmful behaviour and reduce personal responsibility. It also has implications in mental health—if disorders like schizophrenia or depression are seen as purely biological, people may ignore helpful psychological treatments like CBT or life changes.
L: Overall, determinism can have undesirable consequences in both legal and therapeutic settings by undermining accountability and limiting treatment options.

What is the nature vs nurture debate?

This is the argument that behaviour is governed by nature (e.g., genes etc) and by nurture (e.g., environment, experiences etc). The debate being about the relative contribution of each of these influences.

Define nature

• The view that behaviour is the product of innate biological or genetic factors.

• Heredity (genetic inheritance) is the process in which traits are passed down from one generation to the next.

• Many psychological disorders, for example schizophrenia, are said to have a genetic component. Research has found concordance rates of 40% in monozygotic twins and 7% in dizygotic twins, suggesting that nature is a powerful contributing factor in schizophrenia.

Give examples of nature

Attachment → Bowlby proposed that children come into the world biologically programmed to form attachments because this will help them to survive. This suggests attachment behaviours are naturally selected and passed on a result of genetic inheritance.

Relationships: Evolutionary explanations for partner preferences → The evolutionary theory for mate preference maintains the importance of genetics and the biological differences between men and women (nature). Research of Buss et al into mate preference collected data from people in 37 different cultures and found similarities across cultures. This strongly supports the claim that mate preference is caused by nature not nurture.

Define nurture

• The view that we learn all our behaviour from our environment and experiences. Environment is seen as everything outside the body which can include people, events, and the physical world.

• Psychologists who take a purely nature or nurture view are taking a determinist standpoint so you can link nurture to environmental determinism and nature to biological determinism and hence use the appropriate evaluative points as well as those given above.

Give examples of nurture

Attachment → Behavioural psychologists explain attachment in terms of classical conditioning where food (UCS) is associated with the mother (NS) and, through many repeated pairings, the mother becomes a CS who elicits a CR in the child. As a result, the child forms an attachment based on the pleasure experienced as a result of being fed.

Relationships: Evolutionary explanations for partner preferences → While evolutionary theory focuses on biological influences, mate preferences can also be shaped by experience and environment. For example, people often seek partners with similar attitudes or those who complement their own traits, which suggests that our upbringing, social context, and personal experiences influence who we find attractive. This supports the role of nurture in partner preferences, highlighting that not all mate choices are purely based on biology.

What is the Interactionist Approach in the nature vs. nurture debate?

The Interactionist Approach argues that both genetics (nature) and the environment (nurture) shape human behaviour. It suggests people are genetically predisposed to certain behaviours, but an environmental trigger is needed to activate them → diathesis stress model.

For example, intelligence may be genetically influenced, but reaching one’s potential depends on environmental factors like education, diet, or brain injury.

No single gene has been found to fully explain behaviour, so extreme nature views are seen as too simplistic. The current debate focuses on the extent to which genes vs. environment influence behaviour.

Plomin (1994) criticises the overly simple "one gene, one disorder" model, suggesting it underestimates genetic influence. Instead, QTL research looks at how multiple genes interact to affect behaviour, emphasising the complexity of genetic contributions.

Give examples of interactionism

Schizophrenia:

The Interactionist Approach → A broad approach to explaining schizophrenia, which acknowledges that a range of factors, including biological and psychological factors, are involved in the development of schizophrenia.

The Diathesis-Stress Model → An interactionist approach to explaining behaviour. For example, schizophrenia is explained as the result of both underling vulnerability (diathesis) and a trigger, both of which are necessary for the onset of schizophrenia. In early versions of the model, vulnerability was genetic, and triggers were psychological. Nowadays both genes and trauma are seen as diatheses, and stress can be psychological or biological in nature

Addiction:

Genetic vulnerability → The idea of a genetic vulnerability for addiction supports the nature debate, but the other risk factors in addictive behaviour, such as stress, personality, family influence and peers are very much contained in the environment (nurture). This seems to suggest an interactionist perspective overall would provide the most appropriate explanation.

What are the evaluation points for the nature vs nurture debate?

Nurture Influences Nature (Neural Plasticity)

Nature vs Nurture Can’t Be Fully Separated

Over-Simplification – Epigenetics & Diathesis-Stress Model

Dangerous Implications of Extremes

Nurture Influences Nature (Neural Plasticity)

P: A limitation of a purely nature-based view is that nurture can shape biology.
E: Maguire et al. (2000) found that London taxi drivers had larger hippocampi due to increased spatial memory use—suggesting the brain changes in response to experience.
E: This shows that while there’s a nature-behaviour link, nurture may be the primary cause.
L: It highlights the importance of an interactionist approach rather than viewing nature and nurture in isolation.

Nature vs Nurture Can’t Be Fully Separated

P: A major issue with taking either a purely nature or nurture view is that it's almost impossible to isolate the effects of each.

E: Twin studies, like Nestadt et al. (2010), found a 68% concordance rate for OCD in identical (MZ) twins and 31% in fraternal (DZ) twins.

E: While this suggests a genetic influence (since MZ twins share more genes), the fact that MZ concordance isn’t 100% shows environment must also play a role. Plus, since MZ twins often get treated more similarly due to looking the same, any greater similarity could also be due to shared experiences—not just genes.

L: Therefore, twin studies show that nature and nurture are deeply linked, and support the use of an interactionist approach to understand behaviour fully.

Over-Simplification – Epigenetics & Diathesis-Stress Model

P: A weakness of taking a purely nature or nurture stance is that it oversimplifies how behaviour develops.

E: Epigenetics shows that the environment (e.g. stress, diet) can change gene expression without altering DNA. These changes can affect behaviour and even be passed on, showing how nurture can shape nature.

E: Similarly, the diathesis-stress model explains disorders like OCD as a mix of biological vulnerability (nature) and life stressors (nurture), meaning both must interact for the disorder to occur.

L: This shows that nature and nurture aren’t separate – they interact, so an interactionist approach gives a better explanation of behaviour.

Dangerous Implications of Extremes

P: A major problem with taking a purely nature-based view is that it implies behaviour is biologically determined, removing personal responsibility and free will.

E: This has historically led to harmful ideologies, such as eugenics — where, in the 1920s, some people were forcibly sterilised for being considered ‘feeble-minded’ due to genetic assumptions.

E: On the flip side, extreme nurture views (like behaviourism) suggest behaviour can be fully shaped by the environment, which raises concerns about state control — for example, governments manipulating citizens by rewarding “desirable” behaviours and punishing “undesirable” ones.

L: Both extremes risk promoting prejudice and discrimination, highlighting the dangers of not adopting a more balanced, interactionist approach.

Holism and reductionism → what are the three levels of explanation?

1. The lowest level of explanation focuses on basic components (reductionism)

2. The middle level is psychological

3. The highest level is cultural and social explanations (holism).

Give an example of the highest level → social and cultural explanations

Memory could be explained at a social and cultural level, as research suggests that cultural expectations affect what we remember and how we recall information. (Bartlett 1932 – schema theory).

Give an example of the middle level → psychological explanations

Memory can be considered at a psychological level. For example, cognitive psychologists examine aspects of memory. Miller (1956), for instance, examined the capacity of STM and Peterson and Peterson examined the duration of STM.

Give an example of the lowest level → biological explanations

Memory can be considered in terms of biological components. For example, Maguire et al (2000) found an association between the size of the hippocampus and memory for spatial navigation.

Define reductionism

The belief that human behaviour can be explained by breaking it down into simpler component parts. An explanation is reductionist when a single cause for a complex behaviour is suggested. A reductionist theory does not consider all the different levels of explanation and may therefore be considered over-simplistic.

What are the two types of reductionism?

1. Biological reductionism

2. Environmental reductionism

Define biological reductionism

Refers to the way that biological psychologists try to reduce behaviour to a physical level and explain it in terms of neurons, neurotransmitters, hormones, brain structure etc.

Give examples of biological reductionism

Psychopathology → The biological approach claims that OCD is caused by higher levels of dopamine and lower levels of serotonin and therefore reduces the cause of OCD down to an imbalance of neurotransmitters.

Schizophrenia → A purely biological explanation of schizophrenia is reductionist, as it oversimplifies the disorder by focusing only on genetic or physiological factors. This ignores important influences like environment, childhood experiences, and thought processes. Cultural and historical differences in schizophrenia rates also suggest environmental factors play a role. A more holistic approach would include psychological explanations, such as family dysfunction and cognitive issues.

Relationships → The evolutionary explanation for partner preference s is biologically reductionist because it implies that there is some genetic transmission of that behaviour. This therefore maintains that partner preference is due biological factors.

Define environmental reductionism

Also known as stimulus-response reductionism. Behaviourists assume that all behaviour can be reduced to the simple building blocks of stimulus and response (S-R) associations and that complex behaviours are therefore a series of S-R chains.

Psychopathology → The behaviourist approach claims that phobias are initiated through classical conditioning and maintained through operant conditioning.

Define holism and give an example

The idea that human behaviour should be viewed as a whole integrated experience and not as separate parts. This approach is concerned with higher levels of explanation such as the behaviour of individuals within a group. Psychologists favouring a holistic approach usually use qualitative methods to discover the multiple underlying social and cultural reasons for a behaviour.

Addiction risk factors addiction → family and peer influences are holistic risk factors for addiction because they consider how relationships and social surroundings can lead to addictive behaviour.

Give an example of the difference between holism and reductionism

Dr Austin and Dr Grant both student people with depression.

Reductionism → Dr Grant carried out experimental research to investigate the brain chemistry of people with depression (reductionism).

Holism → Dr Austin carries out unstructured interviews with people with depression to find out about their symptoms and various aspects of their lives, including their general behaviour and their relationships.

What is the interactionist stance on the holism vs reductionism debate?

There are several levels of explanations which are necessary to account for behaviour ranging from more reductionist to more holistic. Interactionists argue that all explanations have relevance, and it is difficult to establish which has the best explanatory power, particularly since this varies from situation to situation. The interactionist standpoint suggests that no one explanation in isolation can be taken as correct and hence that, often, the best way to use them is in conjunction with each other.

What are the evaluation points for the holism vs reductionism debate

Reductionist approach provides precise and scientific explanations

Overall meaning of behaviour is overlooked

Reductionist can be used to generate appropriate treatment for psychological disorders

Interactionist stance → several explanations are needed to explain behaviour

Reductionist approach provides precise and scientific explanations

P: A strength of the reductionist approach is that it offers a more precise and scientific explanation than broader, holistic ones.

E: Reductionism breaks complex behaviours into simpler parts, making it easier to create operationalised variables and conduct controlled, reliable experiments.

E: This helps researchers study behaviour in a meaningful way and establish causal relationships. In contrast, holistic explanations—like humanistic psychology—can be criticised for being vague and lacking empirical evidence.

L: As a result, both biological and environmental reductionism are considered scientific approaches, whereas holism is often viewed as less rigorous.

Overall meaning of behaviour is overlooked

P: A limitation of taking a reductionist view is that if lower levels (biological or behavioural) are considered in isolation, the overall meaning of behaviour may be overlooked.

E: For example, the effects of conformity to social roles and the deindividuation of the prisoners and guards in the Stanford prison experiment couldn’t be understood by looking at individuals alone—it was the group interaction that was key.

E: This is a limitation because it shows that holistic explanations can offer a more complete and global understanding of behaviour than reductionist ones.

L: Therefore, focusing solely on reductionist approaches may miss important social and contextual factors that influence behaviour.

Reductionist can be used to generate appropriate treatment for psychological disorders

P: A strength of taking a reductionist view is that it can be used to generate effective treatments for psychological disorders.

E: For example, biological reductionism has led to the development of drug therapies for conditions like schizophrenia. These treatments have contributed to a significant reduction in institutionalisation since the 1950s and are seen as more humane, as they avoid blaming the patient and may promote greater tolerance of mental illness.

E: This is a strength because reductionist explanations have clear practical applications, while higher-level explanations may not lead to direct treatments. Holistic approaches can make it harder to identify the main factor to target in therapy. However, drug therapies also have limitations—they often only treat the symptoms rather than the underlying cause, and they ignore the context and function of behaviour. Psychological explanations, by contrast, consider these factors and have also led to successful therapies.

L: Therefore, while reductionist approaches offer valuable and practical treatment options, they can miss important psychological and contextual factors that holistic approaches are better equipped to address.

Interactionist stance → several explanations are needed to explain behaviour

P: The interactionist view suggests that multiple levels of explanation are needed to understand behaviour.

E: For example, the diathesis-stress model links mental disorders like OCD to genetic predisposition (e.g., COMT or SERT gene) triggered by stressors.

E: This approach shows that no single explanation is enough, and combining different perspectives leads to more effective treatments, as shown by March et al. (2007), where a combination of CBT and antidepressants had an 86% improvement rate.

L: Therefore, the interactionist approach provides a more comprehensive and effective treatment strategy.

Define ideographic approach

Psychologists who adopt an idiographic approach focus on the individual and highlight the unique personal experiences of human beings. The term ‘idiographic’ comes from the Greek word idios, meaning ‘own’ or ‘private’. This approach does not aim to generalise findings to others. Advocates of the idiographic stance typically avoid large-scale studies or quantitative methods, believing that each person is unique and should be understood as such. As a result, creating universal laws of behaviour is seen as irrelevant. The humanist approach reflects this perspective, celebrating individual uniqueness.

The ideographic approach uses case studies and unstructured interviews/thematic analysis as part of their research - explain how

Case Studies:
Case studies capture the unique perspective of an individual who demonstrates a key behaviour or difference, which can be used to evaluate psychological theories. While they are often criticised for lacking generalisability due to their uniqueness, they can still highlight flaws in a theory. Since a theory should account for all individuals, even one contradictory case study can challenge its validity.

Unstructured Interviews/Thematic Analysis:
The idiographic approach favours methods that explore personal opinions, attitudes, and reflections. These include self-report tools and qualitative sources like diaries, journals, letters, and unstructured interviews.

Define the nomothetic approach

Are concerned with establishing general laws, based on the study of large groups of people, that can be applied across any given population. (‘Nomothetic’ comes from the Greek word ‘nomos’ which means ‘law’.)