Exam II Study Guide

What animal are Coral related to?

Jellyfish

Which algae do coral form a relationship with?

Zooxanthallae

How would you describe the relationship between Coral and Zooanthallae (one word)

Symbiotic

What is the exoskeleton of coral made from?

Calcium Carbonate

Describe the a coral reef.

Limestone bodies of dead corals accumulated over hundreds or thousands of years

What part of the coral do Zooxanthella reside?

Gut cavity

Why does coral bleaching occur?

The ocean temperature increases. This stress corals resulting in the expulsion of symbiotic algae. Coral appear whitish as a consequence hence the term bleaching

Explain the increasing salinity of the oceans

Higher ocean temperatures increase evaporation. Increase in evaporation results in higher salt concentrations

Explain Ocean Acidification

An increase of CO2 lowers the pH of ocean water

What is the result of Ocean Acidification

Removes carbonate ions restricting availability to corals. Corals are unable to produce exoskeletons

Provide some examples of adaptations the Camel has developed

-Hump for food storage

-Long Eyelashes help protect eyes

-Back hair protects from the sun

-Padded Feet protects from heat of the sand and sinking into sand

-Long legs for cooling

-Leathery Mouth for spiky plants

-Stretchy Nostrils for keeping sand out.

Soil Nutrients

Oxygen, Hydrogen, Carbon, Nitrogen, Phosphorus. Calcium, and Potassium

How are nutrients obtained

ions dissolved in water from the soil

What are the common forms of nutrients

Ammonium (NH4+), Nitrate (NO3-), Phosphate ((PO4)3-) , Calcium Ca2+, and Potassium K+

How is ion availability determined

soil temperature, pH, and the presence of other Ions

Define Water potential

-a measure of water's potential energy

-affects the movement of water in soil from one location to another

Define Matric Potential

-Potential energy generated by the attractive forces between water molecules and soil particles.

-Water molecules and soil particles have electrical charges.

How is Matric Potential Measured

It is a unit of pressure measured in megapascals

What is the matric potential of saturated soil

0 MPa

What is Field Capacity

-Maximum amount of water held by soil against the force of gravity

when water soil drain the matric potential declines to -0.01 MPa

What is the Wilting Point

When the matric potential declines due to increased water extraction by plants from the soil. Approximately -1.5 MPA

What is the relation between the surface area of soil and its ability to hold water?

The greater the surface area the more water it can hold

What are the 3 particle sizes

sand, silt, clay

Which particles have more surface area relative to their volume?

Smaller Particles i.e. Clay,

Which soil composition is best for growing plants

Loam soils

What is the average soil composition for Loam soil

40% sand, 40% silt, and 20% clay

What is the average solute concentration of roots in relation to soil water

Root Cells have a higher concentration than soil water

How is water drawn into the root

osmosis

What kind of membranes do roots have

semipermeable membranes

-prevents larger solutes from leaving the roots

-allows ions and small molecules to enter

How do plants in salty environments adapt?

they increase the concentration of solutes in their roots

What is Salinization

The process of repeated irrigation (w/ salty water) that causes increased soil salinity.

- Creates a challenge for crop plants

How does soil become Salinized

The increased evaporation of water from soil and transpiration of the plant increases the concentration of salt in the soil

Define Cohesion

Mutual attraction of water molecules

Define Root Pressure

Osmotic potential in the roots of a plant draws in water from the soil

-can raise water to 20 meters

Transpiration

The process by which leaves can generate water potential as water evaporates from the leaf cells

Define Stomata

-Openings on leaf surfaces that are points of entry for CO2 and exits for water vapor

-bordered by guard cells.

-Prevents wilting from excess transpiration

How do guard cells function

When swollen the guard cells are bent open. The loss of water with allow them to close

How does water move throughout the plant?

Cohesion-tension theory

Define Cohesion Tension Theory

water ascent in trees is exclusively due to the transpirational pull from continuous water columns in the xylem conduit running from the roots to the leafs.

What wavelengths does the Photosynthetically Active Region operate

400nm (violet) to 700 nm (red)

Define Chloroplasts

- Cell organelles where photosynthesis occurs.

- Chloroplasts contain stack of membranes (thylakoids) surrounded stroma

What resides inside the thylakoids that absorb light

Chlorophylls and Carotenoids pigments

What colors of light do Chlorophylls absorb and reflect

-absorb red and violet

-reflect green and blue light

What is Chlorophyll a responsible for?

photosynthesis

What do the other cholorphyss b, c, d, and f do?

They are accessory pigments that capture light energy and pass it to chlorophyll a

What colors of light do carotenoids absorb and reflect

-Absorb blue and green

- Reflect orange and red

What is the formula for photosynthesis?

6CO2 + 6H2O ------> C6H12O6 + 6O2

Describe the Light reactions

-occurs in the thylakoid membrane

-splits H2O and produces O2

Calvin Cycle

-Also, called Light Independent Reactions

-Occurs in the stroma

- Requires CO2

-Produces Sugar Molecules

During the Calvin Cycle what occurs in the stroma

the ATP and NADPH is used to convert CO2 into glucose

What are the 3 types of Calvin Cycles

C3, C4, and CAM

What is the formula for C3 Photosynthesis

CO2 + RuBP ------> G3p

-3 carbon sugar

-catalyzed by RuBP carboxylase-oxidase also known as Rubisco

What re the disadvantages of C3 photosynthesis.

-Rubisco has a low affinity for CO2

-This requires that plants to pack their cells full of rubisco

-Rubisco prefers to bind to O2

-Hot and dry. Closure of the stomata to prevent transpiration also prevents the release of O2

Define Photorespiration

Oxidation of carbohydrates to CO2 and H20 by Rubisco - reverses the light reactions of photosynthesis

Is C3 photosynthesis optimal in hot and dry environments

NO

What are two plant adaptations for hot and dry climates

C4 and CAM photosynthesis

Describe C4 photosynthesis

The plant can shut it's stomata when weather is hot and dry to conserve water, but is able to make sugar by photosynthesis.

The carbon is first fixed into as 4 carbon compound Oxaloacetic acid

What is the formula for Oxaloacetic Acid

CO2 + PEP ---> OAA

PEP - phosphoenol pyruvate; has higher CO2 affinity than rubisco

In C4 plant where do the chloroplasts reside

In the bundle sheath cells

How do CAM (Crassulacean Acid Metabolism) plants adapt

-CAM plants conserve water by opening their stomata and admitting CO2 only at night

-CO2 is turned into a 4 carbon compound and banked

-It is released into the Calvin cycle during the day

How are the steps separated in CAM plants

they are separated by time

When is the stomata open in CAM plants

Nights, cooler temp slows transpiration and exchanges gases

In c4 photosynthesizing plants where is the 4-c compound made

Mesophyll cell

What Structural adaptations help plants survive

-Shallow Root

-Deep Roots

-Resins and Waxy cuticles

-Spines and hairs

-Small leaves; high density of veins

How do shallow roots help plants survive?

take up water after brief rainfall events

How do deep roots help plants survive?

They reach down farther into the soil for water and help support the plant

How do resins and waxy cuticles help plant survive

Protect plants from direct sunlight and slow water loss

How doe spines and hairs help plants survive

Provide protection and produce a boundary later of still air that traps moisture and reduces evaporation

How do small leaves/ high density of veins help plants survive

Prevent loss of leaf tissue via embolisms in veins, which are common in water-stressed environments

Define homeostasis

Organism's ability to maintain internal conditions

What are negative feedbacks?

Internal response mechanisms that restores a system to a desired state when the system deviates form that state

Terrestrial animals, with lungs, are (more/less) vulnerable to respiratory water loss than plants?

less

How do animals acquire mineral ions

the food and water they consume

How are excess salts eliminated

water intake and urine excretion

How do desert kangaroo rats conserve water

-They forage during the night

-stay below the ground during the day

-They have larger kidneys that permit increased water retention

How do animal that do not have access to freshwater eliminate the salt in their drinking water

Through specialized salt-secreting organs

What nitrogen metabolic by product do mammals produce?

urea (CO(NH2)2)

What Nitrogen metabolic by product do birds and reptiles produce?

Uric acid (C5H4N4O3)

Define Radiation

Emission of electromagnetic energy by a surface

Define Conduction

Transfer of kinetic energy of heat between substance that re in contact with one another

-Dependent on surface area, resistance to heat transfer, & temperature differences

Define Convection

Transfer of heat by movement of liquids and gases; molecules next to a warm surface gain energy and move away

Define Evaporation

Transformation of water from a liquid to a gaseous state with the input of energy; removes heat from a surface

What is the relationship between an organism's surface area and the square of its length

As the square of its length increases so does the square of its length

Volume is Length cubed therefore volume increase faster than surface area

read the front

Where does heat transfer across with regard to an organism?

the organism's surface area

Larger animals lose and gain heat (more/less) rapidly than small critters

less

When temperature changes, it is (easier/harder) for a larger animal to maintain a constant internal temp

easier

Define Thermal inertia

Resistance to a change in temperature due to a large body volume

Define Thermoregulation

Ability of an organism to control the temperature of its body

Define Homeotherms

Maintain constant temperature

Define poikilotherms

Do not have constant body temperatures

Define Ectotherms

Body temperatures determined by their external environment; not always poikilotherms

Define Endotherms

Organisms generate metabolic heat to raise body temperature higher than the external environment

Describe the metabolic rates and body types of Ectotherms

Organisms with low metabolic rates or small body sizes

- reptiles, amphibians, insects

How do ectotherms adjust their body temps

-Changing their orientation with the sun

-Adjusting their contact with warm substrates

-moving in and out of shade

What is the average temperature interval of endo therms

36C to 41C their environment is plus or minus 50 degrees C

How do endotherms generate heat

metabolic action/heat or environmental heat

Rate of metabolism needed to maintain a body temp (increases/decreases) with the difference between body and environment temps

increases

Define blood shunting

Specific blood vessels shut off

- less of an animal's warm blood flows to cold extremities

Where does shunting occur?

precapillary sphincters