HPED1020: Leadership and Communication (2)

Communication

• The process of acting on information

• Human communication: The process of creating or sharing meaning through interaction with other human beings

  • The process of making sense out of the world and sharing that sense with others by creating meaning through verbal and nonverbal messages

• Studying communication improves employment, relationships, and physical and emotional health

Interpersonal Communication

• Communication that takes place between two people who share a relationship

• Involves relationship between two unique individuals — “I-Thou” relationship

• True dialogue and honest sharing of self with others

Impersonal Communication

• Involves relationship between an individual and an object — “I-It” relationship

• Mechanical and stilted; no honest sharing of feelings

Reasons for Communication

• To inform

• To persuade

• To entertain

Models of Communication

1. Transfer or exchange of information ↓

2. Give and take approach ↓

3. Process

Communication: What Is Involved

• Source

• Encoding (creating message in head)

• Channels (written, verbal, physical, etc.)

• Receiver

• Decoding (make sense of the message)

• Feedback

• Noise (external, internal, semantic)

Barriers to Communication: Different Contexts

• Physical

• Social

• Historical

• Psychological

• Cultural

Physical Barriers to Communication

• Noise

• Distance

• Walls / Closed Doors / Faulty Technology

Social Barriers to Communication

• Stereotypes and prejudice

• Cultural or age gaps and differences

• Differing communication styles (i.e., direct vs subtle)

Historical Barriers to Communication

• Language differences

• Lack of technology

• Vast physical distances

• Cultural clashes (beliefs, norms, gestures)

Psychological Barriers to Communication

• Internal mental or emotional blocks (stress, fear, self-esteem, anger, lack of attention)

  • Emotions (particularly negative ones like anger, fear, anxiety, jealous or sadness can cloud judgment)

  • Selective Perception/Attention: filtering information based on personal needs, interests, or what we want to hear

Cultural Barriers to Communication

• Language differences

• Cultural differences (difference in cultural norms, gestures, what is considered appropriate or inappropriate may differ, etc.)

• Ethnocentrism and other forms of prejudice

• Conflicting Values/Norms (i.e., time perception, formality)

Characteristics of Communication

• Inescapable

• Irreversible

• Complicated

• Emphasizes context and relationships

• Governed by rules

Verbal Communication: The Nature of Language

• Words as symbols (i.e. “dawn” for new beginnings)

• Meaning to words

• Denotative and Connotative meanings for words (dictionary literal definition vs cultural, emotional, or suggested meanings through the literal; i.e., “home” is a place where one lives, but also the word “home” connotes warmth, family, safety)

• Concrete and abstract meanings through words

• Culture bound

• Context bound

Reasons for Different Meanings

• Homonyms: words that sound alike but have different meanings

• Substitution: people have different meanings for words

• Semantic Blanks: do not know the meaning of the word used

Improving Verbal Communication: Speaking Clearly

• Use specific language (specific, concrete, and precise words)

• Provide details and examples

• Dating information

• Indexing generalizations

Word Barriers

• Bypassing: miscommunication because of different understandings of the same words

• Lack of precision (i.e., jargon)

• Allness: i.e. “all women are bad drivers”

• Static Evaluation: statements that fail to recognize change (labels tend to do this)

• Polarization: extremes in all black and white; no shades or nuance: i.e., “you either love me or you don’t”

Improving Verbal Communication: Speak Appropriately

• Consider formality of language

• Jargon and slang

• Profanity and vulgarity

• Sensitivity

Non-Verbal Communication: Challenges

• Ambiguous

• Continuous

• Multi-channelled

• Cultural-based

Codes of Non-Verbal Communication

• Eye contact

• Facial expressions

• Gesture

• Posture

• Proximity (see image)

Codes of Nonverbal Communication: Body Movement

• Emblems: Take the place of a word or phrase (i.e., thumbs up for “okay” or approval)

• Illustrators: Illustrate what the speaker is saying (i.e. spreading hands wide when saying “it was huge”)

• Affect Displays: Display feelings that have not been expressed verbally (i.e., facial expressions, body language, vocal cues)

• Regulators: Control the flow of a conversation (i.e. eye contact, head nods, or hand gestures)

• Adaptors: Relieve tension (i.e., fidgeting with a pen, twirling hair, adjusting glasses)

Non-Verbal Communication: Variations

• Cultural

  • Eye contact

  • Gestures, posture, and facial expressions

• Gender

  • Eye contact

  • Facial expressions

Paralanguage

• “It’s not what you said, it’s how you said it”

• Adding meaning to words through elements like pitch, tone, volume, rate, and pauses/silence, working alongside body language (gestures, facial expressions) to convey emotions, intentions, and emphasis

Perception

• An active process by which you become aware of what is around you

• Interpersonal Perception: Making judgments about people and actions

• Everyone uses shortcuts — shortcuts may mislead you

• Memory is influenced by preconceptions; stereotypes may distort perception

Process of Perception

1. Selection

2. Organization

3. Interpretation

Process of Perception: Selection

• Selective Perception: make sense based on our beliefs, values, etc.

• Selective Attention: focus on specific stimuli; fulfill your needs

• Selective Exposure: with people that confirm or add to your thoughts

• Selective Recall: remember things we want to remember

Process of Perception: Selection (2)

• Visual & Aural Stimulation: sights, sounds, smell

• Needs & Interests: focus on things that interest you or meet your needs

• Expectations: tuned in when expecting something to happen or when not expecting something but out of ordinary

Process of Perception: Organization

• Rules: things that go together, things that are very different, things that are similar

• Search for patterns

• Proximity: things that are close together

• Similarity: things that are similar

• Difference: things that are different

• Closure: fill in missing information

Process of Perception: Interpretation

• Interpreting actions, behaviours of others

• Assign meaning to experiences

• Form impressions of others

The Processes of Perception: Perceiving Others

• How we form impressions of others

• Impressions: collection of perceptions; used to interpret others’ behaviors

Primary-Recency

• Primacy Effect: What happens first exerts the most influence (first impressions are the most important)

• Recency Effect: What happens most recently exerts the most influence

Perceptions: How We Describe Others

• Halo Effect: Inferring many positive qualities from one

• Horn (Reverse Halo) Effect: Inferring many negative qualities from one

Barriers to Perception

• Ignoring information

• Oversimplifying

• Stereotyping

• Imposing consistency

• Focusing on the negative

• Fundamental attribution error (more likely to believe that others are to blame when things go wrong)

• Self-serving bias (when things go right, it’s because of me; when go things go wrong, it’s because of others)

Perception-Checking

• Three parts:

  • Description of behaviour (“When you stomped out of the room and slammed the door,”)

  • At least two possible interpretations (“I wasn’t sure if you were mad at me or in a rush”)

  • Request for clarification (“How did you feel?)

Increasing Accuracy in Perception

• Analyze your perceptions

• Check your perceptions

• Reduce uncertainty

• Be culturally sensitive

Johari’s Window

• Developed by Joseph Luft and Harry Ingham

• Used to describe human interactions, relationships, communication, group dynamics, trust building, and self-learning

• Important Aspect: Feedback + Self-Disclosure = Positive Environment

Challenges With Electronic/Digital/Virtual Communication

• Can cause confusion, not include enough information, or not provide enough details leaving readers to interpret the information

• Speed, technical issues, no body language, lack of context

• Emotional detachment, digital distractions, privacy and security, etiquette and professionalism

Challenges With Electronic/Digital/Virtual Non-Verbal Communication

• Only one speaker at time: How do you communicate if you have something to add to the conversation?

• Misleading or deceiving: How can you tell when someone is focused on virtual? Or if they are being truthful?

• Perceptions: How are you perceived by your audience / other communicators on a virtual call?

Benefits of Electronic/Digital/Virtual Communication

• Efficiency

• Cost-effective

• Global reach

• Flexibility

• Real-time feedback

• Personalization

Things to Consider: Electronic/Digital/Virtual Communication

• Your interpretation, give the benefit of the doubt, think positive

• Pick up the phone, wait 24 hours, consider accessibility

• Understanding your audience, simplicity, choose the right channels

• Create emotional connections

• Email address, number of recipients, spelling, use the subject line, keep it short and to the point, emphasize actional items

Decision-Making

Figuring out what to do from a variety of options (i.e., how many people to hire)

Steps in Decision-Making: DGDRM

1. Determine the scope of the decision

2. Get the facts

3. Develop alternatives

4. Rate each alternative

5. Make a decision

Decision Categories

• Crisis

• Non-crisis

• Opportunities

• Programmed Decisions — Routine

• Non-programmed Decisions — No previous rules

Creativity in Decision Making

• 4 Phases of Creative Thinking

  • Preparation — gathering information

  • Incubation — relax and think

  • Illumination — when the decision comes

  • Verification — examines usefulness of decision

Qualities That Support Creativity

• Freedom

• Good leadership

• Resources

• Encouragement

• Feedback

• Time

• Challenge

Steps to Brainstorming

1. No evaluation, no criticism, no positive or negative feedback

2. Think up wild activities

3. Quantity breads quality

4. Build off or modify ideas

How Decisions Are Made

• Individual vs. Group

• Group decisions:

  • Leader — authority

  • Group expert — expert decides

  • Average

  • Group representative — identified leader

  • Minority — legitimate role

  • Majority — most common

  • Consensus — everyone agrees

Advantages of Group Decision Making

• Everyone gets a say

• Allows for more input/ideas/perspectives

• Increases buy-in and commitment from those involved

• Fosters collaboration and team spirit

Disadvantages of Group Decision Making

• Time consuming

• Not everyone may agree or be happy with the decision made, even when it is one made through consensus

• Some members may not be as heard from as other members

• Reduced individual effort

Factors Which Affect Decision Making

• Lack of understanding

• Deny there is a problem

• Nervousness of participants

• Decisiveness

• Bias

• Lack of openness to change

Problem-Solving

• Deciding on an action to solve a problem (i.e., how to run successful programs with less funding)

1. Recognize there is a problem

2. Define the program

3. Determine the objective — What is the ideal outcome?

4. Formulate alternatives

5. Decide and implement solution

6. Evaluate solution

Ethical Decision Making

• How to “test” if you are making an ethical decision

  • End result ethics: think about the outcomes

  • Rules ethics: agencies, policies, and procedures,

  • Organization values: examine organization’s values

  • Personal conviction: personal beliefs

Historical Leaders

• Key players in the history of recreation/sport leadership: Joseph Lee, Dorothy Enderis, Josephine D. Randall, Kurt Hahn, Jane Addams, George Butler

• All made significant reforms and pioneered contributions in public recreation and sport leadership during different eras (~1900s)

  • Jane Addams, for instance, was an American reformer and social worker/activist who advocated for women’s suffrage; she revolutionized recreation by seeing it as vital for democracy, citizenship, and human development, not just play; recreation could be used to socialize democracy by connecting people across classes and cultures through shared activities like the Hull-House programs she implemented

Difficult Conversations: How to Prepare

1. Decide what it is you want to achieve: what is your goal of the conversation?

2. Due diligence: check facts and gather documents

3. Other side: Put yourself in the situation of the other party involved

4. Decide if you need support

5. Consider the logistics: timing, environment (face to face vs online), location (private vs public), layout of the space, distractions, etc.

6. Prepare: What are you going to say?

7. Give them time to prepare

Difficult Conversations: Steps for Success

• State the Problem: What is the purpose of the meeting, what is it that you are trying to resolve, and how has it been impacting you?

• Listen and Question: “How do you feel about that?” “Tell me about that…”

• Acknowledge the other party’s feelings and view

• Reassess your position: Clarify your position without minimizing theirs — “Given this conversation, I can see how you formulated this conclusion … however …”

• Look for solutions

• Adjourn the conversation and make next steps if necessary

Difficult Conversations: Emotions

• Understanding and managing emotions are an important part of difficult conversations. Consider:

  • Rational approach

  • Be mindful of body language

  • Calm voice / don’t raise your voice

  • Speak at a reasonable pace

  • Keep language simple

  • Taking a pause or a few breaths can be helpful

  • Show genuine interest for the other person’s emotions as well