Logical Reasoning Method and Arguments

Four Step Method

1) Read question—identify question type

Untangle stimulus—keywords, what is relevant

Predict the answer—use own words to state right answer

Evaluate answer choices—eliminate

Flaw

Correct answer will describe author’s error

• Located between evidence and conclusion

Outside the Scope

Choice containing a statement that is too broad, narrow, or irrelevant

Irrevelant Comparison

A choice that compares two items in a way not relevant to the authors argument

Extreme

A choice containing language too emphatic to be supported by the stimulus

• all, never, every, none

Distortion

Choice that mentions details from stimulus but mangles the relationship between those details implied by author

180

Choice that directly contradicts what the correct answer must say

Faulty use of detail

choice that accurately states something from the stimulus but in a manner that answers the question incorrectly

Sufficient Assumption

for what assumption is enough for the conclusion to follow logically

Conclusion

The assertion, evaluation, or recommendation about which the author is trying to convince their reader—Find this first, ask “why” to evidence

Evidence

Facts, studies, or contentions the author believes support or establish the conclusion

Conclusion Keywords

Thus, therefore, as a result, so, consequently

Subsidiary Conclusions

Two conclusion keywords

• Evidence → 2nd conclusion → actual conclusion

• Evidence is designed to support the conclusion

• Which conclusion is supporting which, what is the ultimate goal

Evidence Keywords

Can indicate both evidence and conclusion

• Since, because, for example, after all, for

Common Patterns w/ Evidence Keywords

Because/Since evidence, conclusion

Conclusion, because/since/for evidence

Conclusion. After all, evidence

2AM Test

Paraphrase conclusion as a complete thought

• If called and said conclusion that the text says word for word, would someone understand it?

• Need context

Conclusion from Context

One sentence test—boil everything down

Try to insert a because

Negation of Opponents Point

Someone else talking, author giving contrast

• Keywords: but, yet, however

Those people are wrong, heres why

Actual conclusion is opposite

Whenever see refutation, fill in conclusion of actual negation of opinion

Role of a Statement

How does stimulus fit into author’s argument?

• Will always quote/paraphrase stimulus

• Most common answers: it’s the conclusion; it’s the evidence

1) Identify arguments conclusion (ignore quoted statement to not mistake it for conclusion)

2) Underline quoted statement in question and stimulus

3) What is the relationship between conclusion and quoted text → if same: answer is conclusion, if different: most likely evidence

Point at Issue

Presented with two people arguing, look for word disagree

• Does speaker one have opinion?

• Does speaker two have opinion?

• Do speakers disagree?

If all of these, than answer choice is correct

Method of Argument

Identify what kind of evidence does author use to support their conclusion

• The journalist argues by

• The scientist proceeds by

Paraphrase argument, consider what type of argument

Predict answer broadly

Analogy (Argument)

Word “like” can be used, comparing two dissimilar things

Example/Counterexample (Argument)

Pointing at specific event that supports/doesn’t support something

Appeal to Authority (Argument)

Relying on expert opinion that a certain result indicates a certain position

• Expert telling you something is not an immediate appeal to authority

“Because I said so”

Ad Hominem (Argument)

Attacking the character of the person instead of the argument

• Being mean doesn’t automatically make it ad hominem

Means/Requirements (Argument)

X requires Y, formal logic and can see clearly

Definition (Argument)

Apply a definition to a thing, this thing meets definition, therefore it is that thing

• Using definition to prove a point