Anatomy Semester Exam Review

Homeostasis

the process by which living organisms maintain a stable internal environment, despite external changes

Negative feedback loop

a biological mechanism whereby a change in a system causes an effect that counteracts the initial change, helping to maintain homeostasis

Positive feedback loop

a change in a system causes an effect that amplifies the initial change, resulting in an increased output

simple squamous epithelium

diffusion; can be found in the alveoli

stratified squamous epithelium

protection; can be found in skin

simple cuboidal epithelium

secretion and absorption; can be found in the kidneys

simple columnar epithelium

absorption; can be found in the small intenstine

pseudostratified ciliated epithelium

sweep along substances; found in trachea

hyaline cartilage

provide flexible support; found in nose, nee, and trachea

elastic cartilage

provide flexible support; found in ear and epiglottis

bone (osseous tissue)

protect, provide structure, store minerals; found in bones

adipose tissue

protect, cusion, fuel storage; hypodermis and surrounding organs

blood

transportation; found in blood vessels

cardiac muscle

contract to pump blood; found in heart

smooth muscle

contract to move internal substances; found in digestive organs, uterus, ureters

skeletal muscle

contract to move bone + skin; voluntary muscles

function of epithelial tissue

protection, secretion, absorption

function of connective tissue

binds tissues together, support, transportation, protection

function of muscular tissue

movement

hemostasis

blood clotting

first stage of hemostasis

vascular spasm; smooth muscle in the walls of the vessel contracts dramatically

second stage of hemostasis

platelet plug formation; the process where a platelet plug forms to prevent further loss of blood from a damaged vessel

third step of hemostasis

coagulation; clotting factors promote the formation of a fibrin clot

vestigial feature that allows the hair to stand erect and produces goosebumps

arrector pili muslce

factors that can influence skin color

melanin (brown or black pigments), genetics (heredity), blood flow (more red or more pale), sun exposure (melanocytes produce more melanin)

tissues present in epidermis

stratified squamous epithelium

tissue present in dermis

connective tissues, glands, nerves

tissues present in hypodermis

adipose, connective

basal cell carcinoma

pearly white or waxy bump, flat, scaly, brown or flesh-colored patch, begins in stratum basle

squamous cell carcinoma

scaly, reddened papule arises, forms shallow ulcer with firm, raised border, can metastasize, begins in lower epidermis

malignant melanoma

spread of pigment from the border of a spot into surrounding skin; redness or new swelling beyond the border of the mole, cancer of the melanocytes

path of air through respiratory system

nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli

ways that the blood transports carbon dioxide

bicarbonate ions, dissolved CO2, bound to hemoglobin

ways that blood transports oxygen

bound to hemoglobin, dissolved O2

eupnea

normal breathing

apnea

without breathing

dyspnea

difficulty breathing

hyperventilation

rapid breathing

internal respiration

exchange of gases between blood + body tissues (carbon dioxide to blood, oxygen to cells)

external respiration

exchange of gases in lungs; carbon dioxide to alveoli and oxygen to blood

When CO2 builds up in the blood, the pH of blood decreases. What is the response of the respiratory center / breathing rate?

increases respiration rate to expel excess carbon dioxide

central nervous system

brain + spinal cord, processes information + coordinates responses

peripheral nervous system

nerves outside brain + spinal cord; connects CNS to other parts of the body

Huntington’s disease

genetic disorder, movement + cognitive decline

Parkinson’s

tremors, rigidity, slow movements; degeneration of dopamine-producing neurons (stem cell treatment)

Alzheimer’s

progressive memory loss (form of dementia) stem cell treatment

parietal lobe

sensory processing, taste

temporal lobe

hearing, smell, memory

frontal lobe

problem solving, reasoning, fine motor control

Action potential

stimulus, sodium channels open up, membrane is depolarized, potassium channels open, potassium ions diffuse outward

sensory neuron

take information from the environment and send signal to the brain

motor neuron

neurons communicate information from the brain to tissues and organs throughout the body, allowing for movement

interneuron

make up the majority of neurons in the body. they transmit information between sensory and motor neurons. memory, learning, and planning

functions of the skeletal system

support, protection, movement, mineral storage, blood cell production, and body shape/form

role of parathyroid hormone

increases blood calcium levels by stimulating osteoclasts (decreased bone strength)

role of calcitonin

decreases blood calcium by stimulating osteoblasts (decreasing bone strength)

greenstick fracture

incomplete break

comminuted

bone broken into multiple pieces

spiral

bone twisted; rotational force

compression

bone collapses under pressure

hairline

thin crack in bone

impacted

one bone driven into second bone, causing ends of fractured bone to be compressed

tendon

connects bone to muscle

ligament

connects bone to bone

functions of the muscular system

heat production, movement production, stabilizing joints, and maintaining posture

acetycholine

the neurotransmitter that triggers nerve impulses to muscle fibers to initiate contraction

hernia

organ or tissue protrudes through weak muscular wall

muscular dystrophy

genetic, progressive weakness + degeneration of skeletal muscles

myasthenia gravis

autoimmune; immune system attacks neuromuscular junction; muscle weakens

tetanus

bacteria; muscle spasms + stiffness (lock jaw)

muscle strains

muscle fiber streched/torn; caused by overuse or improver use

cornea

protects the eye, does some refracting

iris

colored part of eye, controls size of pupil

lens

focuses on light by refraction

pupil

lets in light

retina

photoreceptors process light

function of myelin

speeds up impulse transmission

gray matter

cell bodies, dendrites, synapses, processing information

white matter

myelinated axons; transmits signals

reflex arc

predictable, rapid response to stimulus

synapse

junction between cells via neurotransmitters

asthma

inflammation of bronchioles

emphysema

damaged alveoli

cystic fibrosis

mucus accumulation, genetic

lung cancer

tumor beginning in lungs; primarily caused by smoking

carbon monoxide poisoning

CO binds to hemoglobin in place of O2

osteoclasts

break down bone

osteoblasts

build new bone tissue