Learning, Consciousness, Memory, Motivation & Emotion (Midterm 2)

Learning

A relatively permanent change in behaviour or knowledge due to experience.

Nonassociative Learning

Changes in response to a single stimulus.

habituation

decrease in response after repeated exposure

dishabituation

return of response when a stimulus appears

sensitization

increased response to a stimulus

Dual-process theory of nonassociative learning

Explains how habituation and sensitization balance each other depending on the person's arousal state.

Associative Learning

Learning that involves forming associations between stimuli or behaviours.

Classical Conditioning

A learning process where a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus, producing a conditioned response.

Unconditioned Stimulus (US)

A stimulus that naturally triggers a response.

Unconditioned Response (UR)

An automatic response to the US.

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

A previously neutral stimulus that, after association with the US, triggers a conditioned response.

Conditioned Response (CR)

A learned response to the CS.

Operant Conditioning

Learning based on behaviour's consequences.

Antecedents

A stimulus that proceeds the behaviour and sets the stage for behaviour to happen.

Behaviour

The voluntary action that takes place (operant response).

Consequences

The stimuli presented after the behaviour that either increases or decreases the likelihood that the behaviour will be repeated.

Acquisition

The initial stage where the CS and US are presented together.

Extinction

The weakening of the CR when the CS is repeatedly presented without the US.

Spontaneous Recovery

The reappearance of the extinguished CR after a rest period.

Generalization

The tendency to respond similarly to stimuli that resemble the CS.

Discrimination

The learned ability to differentiate between the CS and other similar stimuli.

Contiguity

The closeness in time between the CS and US.

Contingency

The predictive relationship between the CS and US, which is crucial for conditioning.

is continguity sufficient to produce conditioning?

no contiguity is important, contingency is crucial for effective conditioning

Blocking

A phenomenon where a new CS fails to elicit a CR because an existing CS already predicts the US.

why does blocking occur?

conditioned stimulus already predicts the conditioned stimulus, so new stimuli presented alongside it are ignored

what psychological disorder has been linked to deficits in blocking?

linked to schizophrenia, where individuals may form associations with irrelevant stimuli

"Little Albert" Study

A study by Watson and Rayner demonstrates that fear can be conditioned in humans.

Counterconditioning

Replacing an unwanted CR with a positive response through new associations.

Neural Substrates of Fear Conditioning

The amygdala is key in fear conditioning, processing emotional responses and learning to associate stimuli with fear.

Adaptive Value of Classical Conditioning

It helps organisms predict important events (like food or danger) and prepare appropriate responses, enhancing survival.

Drug Tolerance

Reduced effect of a drug over time, requiring higher doses for the same effect.

role in drug overdose?

conditioning can lead to tolerance where cues in usual environments prepare the body; without these cues, overdose risk increases

Preparedness

The innate tendency to form associations between certain stimuli and responses more easily

Law of Effect

Behaviors followed by satisfying outcomes are more likely to recur, while those followed by discomfort are less likely.

Positive Reinforcement

adding a stimulus that increases behaviour

positive punishment

adding a stimulus that decreases behaviour

negative reinforcement

removing a stimulus that increases behaviour

negative punishment

removing a stimulus that decreases behaviour

Primary Reinforcers

Inherently satisfying (e.g., food).

secondary reinforcers

Gain value through association with primary reinforcers (e.g., money).

Shaping

Reinforcing successive steps toward a target behaviour.

Instinctive Drift

Tendency for learned behaviours to revert to innate behaviours.

Immediate Reinforcement

Reinforcement right after behaviour, more effective in learning.

delayed reinforcement

Reinforcement after a time gap, but is less effective.

Delay Discounting

Preference for smaller immediate rewards over larger delayed ones.

Continuous Reinforcement

Reinforcing behaviour every time it occurs; quick learning, faster extinction.

Partial Reinforcement

Reinforcing intermittently; slower learning, more resistant to extinction.

Partial Reinforcement Schedules

Fixed Ratio; Variable Ratio; Fixed Interval; Variable Interval.

Fixed Ratio:

Reinforcement after a set number of responses; high response rate

Variable Ratio:

Reinforcement after a variable number; very resistant to extinction

Fixed Interval:

Reinforcement after a set time; responses increase as the interval ends

Variable Interval:

Reinforcement at unpredictable times: steady, slow response rate

Contingent Reinforcement

Reinforcement depends on specific behaviour.

Noncontingent Reinforcement

Reinforcement given regardless of behaviour, leading to superstitious conditioning

Superstitious Conditioning

Learning behaviors by associating them with noncontingent outcomes.

Latent Learning

Learning without immediate reinforcement, which becomes evident later.

Tolman vs Skinner

Tolman suggested that learning can occur without reinforcement, contrary to Skinner's focus on reinforcement as necessary

Observational Learning

Learning by watching others is advantageous as it allows learning without direct experience or trial and error.

Social Learning Theory

Components: Attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation.

attention

focusing on and noticing a behaviour to learn it

retention

remembering the behaviour that was observed

reproduction

physically or mentally practicing the behaviour to imitate it

motivation

having a reason or desire to preform the behaviour

"Bobo Doll" Study

Showed children imitated aggressive behaviour observed in adults, emphasizing learning through observation.

Mirror Neurons

Neurons that fire both when performing and observing an action are important for imitation and empathy.

Cultural Transmission

the passing of knowledge, values, and behaviours from one generation to the next within a society

vertical cultural transmission

learning from parents

horizontal cultural transmission

learning from peers

Insight Learning

Sudden realization of a solution to a problem without trial and error, often involving mental reorganization of information.

Diffusion Chain

Learning behaviour from a model, then serving as a model for others, spreading behaviours across a group.

Consciousness

Awareness of ourselves and our environment.

Synesthesia

A condition where one sense is involuntarily perceived as another, illustrating the complexity of subjective experience.

Awareness

The capacity to focus on specific stimuli or thoughts.

Arousal

The physiological state of being awake and alert.

Self-Awareness

Recognizing oneself as separate from the environment and other entities.

Spotlight Effect

The tendency to overestimate how much others notice our actions or appearance.

Inattentional Blindness

Failing to notice a visible stimulus when attention is focused elsewhere.

Change Blindness

Failing to notice changes in a visual scene due to interruptions or lack of focused attention.

Mind Wandering

A shift of attention from the external environment to internal thoughts.

Perceptual Decoupling

The disengagement of attention from the present environment during mind wandering.

costs of perceptual decoupling

reduced focus and task performance

benefits of perceptual decoupling

enhances creativity and problem-solving by allowing mental exploration

Automaticity

The ability to perform tasks with little or no conscious thought. It facilitates mind wandering because it frees cognitive resources.

Freud's Three Levels of Mind

Conscious; Preconscious; Dynamic Unconscious.

Conscious:

Thoughts we're currently aware of;

Preconscious:

Memories not currently in awareness but easily accessible

Dynamic Unconscious:

Deep-seated desires and memories kept from conscious awareness by repression.

Freud vs. Modern View on Conscious and unconscious mind?

see unconscious; as a repository of repressed thoughts (freud); as a processes that is automatic, routine thoughts (Modern Psychologists)

Cocktail Party Phenomenon

Ability to focus on one conversation while filtering out others.

Subliminal Perception

Processing information without conscious awareness.

Brain Regions for Arousal

Thalamus, reticular formation, and brainstem regulate alertness and consciousness.

Spatial Hemi-Neglect

A condition (usually after right-parietal lobe damage) where individuals ignore the left side of space.

Global Workspace Hypothesis

Conscious awareness arises from information integration across various brain areas.

EEG Studies

show brain-wide neural synchrony when conscious processing occurs, supporting global workspace theory

Default Mode Network (DMN)

A network active during rest, introspection, and mind-wandering.

Locked-in syndrome

complete paralysis with intact awareness; DMN activity may help indicate conscious awareness in these patients

Circadian Rhythm

Biological clock that regulates sleep-wake cycles.

Zeitgeber

External cues (like sunlight) that help synchronize circadian rhythms.

Suprachiasmatic Nucleus (SCN)

Regulates circadian rhythms in the hypothalamus.