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I used google rather than the textbook 😱😱
Empiricism
The view that knowledge originates in experience and that science should rely on observation and experimentation.
Structuralism
An early school of psychology that used introspection to explore the structural elements of the human mind.
Functionalism
A school of psychology that focused on how mental and behavioral processes function—how they enable organisms to adapt, survive, and flourish.
Experimental psychology
The study of behavior and thinking using the experimental method.
Behaviorism
The view that psychology should be an objective science that studies behavior without reference to mental processes.
Humanistic psychology
A historically significant perspective that emphasized the growth potential of healthy people and the individual’s potential for personal growth.
Cognitive neuroscience
The interdisciplinary study of brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language).
Nature–nurture issue
The longstanding controversy over the relative contributions of genetics (nature) and experience (nurture) in the development of psychological traits and behaviors.
Natural selection
The principle that inherited traits that better enable an organism to survive and reproduce in a particular environment will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations.
Levels of analysis
The different complementary views, from biological to psychological to social-cultural, for analyzing any given phenomenon.
Biopsychosocial approach
An integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis.
Behavioral psychology
The scientific study of observable behavior and its explanation by principles of learning.
Biological psychology
The study of the links between biological (genetic, neural, hormonal) and psychological processes.
Cognitive psychology
The study of mental processes, including perception, thinking, memory, and language.
Evolutionary psychology
The study of the evolution of behavior and mind, using principles of natural selection.
Psychodynamic psychology
A branch of psychology that studies how unconscious drives and conflicts influence behavior and uses that information to treat psychological disorders.
Social-cultural psychology
The study of how situations and cultures affect our behavior and thinking.
Psychometrics
The scientific study of the measurement of human abilities, attitudes, and traits.
Basic research
Pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base.
Developmental psychology
The study of physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the lifespan.
Educational psychology
The study of how psychological processes affect and can enhance teaching and learning.
Personality psychology
The study of an individual’s characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting.
Social psychology
The scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another.
Applied research
Scientific study that aims to solve practical problems.
Industrial-organizational (I/O) psychology
The application of psychological concepts and methods to optimizing human behavior in workplaces.
Human factors psychology
A field of psychology that explores how people and machines interact and how physical environments can be made safe and easy to use.
Counseling psychology
A branch of psychology that assists people with problems in living (often related to school, work, or relationships) and in achieving greater well-being.
Clinical psychology
A branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders.
Psychiatry
A branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders; practiced by physicians who sometimes provide medical treatments (such as drug prescriptions) as well as psychological therapy.
Positive psychology
The scientific study of human flourishing, with the goal of discovering and promoting strengths and virtues that help individuals and communities thrive.
Community psychology
A branch of psychology that studies how people interact with their social environments and how social institutions affect individuals and groups.
Testing effect
The finding that long-term memory is enhanced when information is retrieved rather than simply reread, often through self-testing.
SQ3R
A study method incorporating five steps—Survey, Question, Read, Retrieve, and Review—to improve comprehension and retention of material.
Wilhelm Wundt
Known as the 'father of psychology,' he established the first psychology laboratory in 1879 in Leipzig, Germany. He promoted structuralism.
G. Stanley Hall
A student of Wundt, he was the first president of the American Psychological Association (APA) and established the first U.S. psychology lab at Johns Hopkins University.
William James
A pioneer of functionalism, he focused on how mental and behavioral processes help organisms adapt to their environment.
Mary Whiton Calkins
A student of William James, she became the first female president of the APA and contributed significantly to memory research.
Margaret Floy Washburn
The first woman to receive a Ph.D. in psychology, she studied animal behavior and motor theory of cognition.
Sigmund Freud
Founder of psychoanalysis, he emphasized the role of the unconscious mind and childhood experiences in shaping behavior.
John B. Watson
A founder of behaviorism, he argued that psychology should focus on observable behavior rather than internal mental processes.
B. F. Skinner
A leading behaviorist, he developed the concept of operant conditioning, emphasizing how reinforcement and punishment shape behavior.
Carl Rogers
A major figure in humanistic psychology, he developed client-centered therapy, which emphasized unconditional positive regard.
Ivan Pavlov
A Russian physiologist known for discovering classical conditioning through his experiments on dogs.
Jean Piaget
A pioneer in cognitive development who proposed the four stages of cognitive development in children.
Charles Darwin
A naturalist who developed the theory of evolution by natural selection.
Dorothea Dix
A reformer and advocate for the humane treatment of individuals with mental illnesses.
Hindsight bias
The tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it.
Critical thinking
Thinking that does not blindly accept arguments; it involves examining assumptions and evaluating evidence.
Theory
An explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors.
Hypothesis
A testable prediction, often implied by a theory.
Operational definition
A carefully worded statement of the exact procedures used in a research study.
Replication
Repeating the essence of a research study to determine whether basic findings extend to other circumstances.
Case study
A descriptive research method in which an individual or group is studied in depth.
Naturalistic observation
A descriptive research method that involves observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations.
Survey
A research method that collects self-reported data from a representative sample of people.
Sampling bias
A flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample.
Population
The entire group from which a sample is drawn for a study.
Random sample
A sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion.
Correlation
A measure of the extent to which two variables change together.
Correlation coefficient
A statistical index that measures the strength and direction of the relationship between two variables.
Scatterplot
A graphical representation of the relationship between two variables.
Illusory correlation
The perception of a relationship between two variables when no such relationship actually exists.
Experiment
A research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more variables to observe the effect.
Experimental group
The group in an experiment that receives the treatment or independent variable.
Control group
The group in an experiment that does not receive the treatment and is used for comparison.
Random assignment
The process of assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance.
Double-blind procedure
An experimental procedure in which both participants and researchers are unaware of who received treatment.
Placebo effect
The phenomenon in which participants experience changes in behavior simply because they believe they are receiving treatment.
Independent variable
The factor in an experiment that is manipulated to determine its effect.
Confounding variable
A factor other than the independent variable that might influence the dependent variable.
Dependent variable
The outcome factor in an experiment that is measured and affected by changes in the independent variable.
Validity
The extent to which a test or experiment measures what it is supposed to.
Descriptive statistics
Numerical data used to measure and describe characteristics of groups.
Mode
The most frequently occurring score in a data set.
Mean
The arithmetic average of a set of numbers.
Median
The middle value in a data set when the values are arranged in order.
Skewed distribution
A distribution of data that is not symmetrical.
Range
The difference between the highest and lowest scores in a data set.
Standard deviation
A measure of the amount of variation or dispersion of a set of values.
Normal curve
A bell-shaped curve that represents a distribution of data where most values cluster around the mean.
Inferential statistics
Statistical techniques that allow researchers to draw conclusions about a population based on a sample.
Statistical significance
A statistical statement of how likely it is that an observed result occurred by chance.
Culture
The shared beliefs, values, traditions, and behaviors of a group of people.
Informed consent
The process of informing participants about the nature of a study and obtaining their voluntary agreement.
Debriefing
The process of informing participants about the purpose of the study and any deceptions after it has concluded.
Biological psychology
A branch of psychology that studies the links between biology and behavior.
Neuron
A nerve cell that is the basic building block of the nervous system.
Dendrites
Branch-like extensions of a neuron that receive messages from other neurons.
Axon
The long part of a neuron that carries electrical impulses away from the cell body.
Myelin sheath
A fatty layer that covers the axon of some neurons, speeding up the transmission of impulses.
Action potential
A brief electrical charge that travels down the axon of a neuron.
Refractory period
The brief period after an action potential during which a neuron cannot fire again.
Threshold
The level of stimulation required to trigger an action potential in a neuron.
All-or-none response
The principle that a neuron either fires completely or does not fire at all.
Synapse
The junction between two neurons, where neurotransmitters are released.
Neurotransmitters
Chemical messengers that transmit signals across the synapse between neurons.
Reuptake
The process by which neurotransmitters are reabsorbed into the presynaptic neuron.
Endorphins
Neurotransmitters that act as natural painkillers.
Agonist
A substance that mimics or enhances the effect of a neurotransmitter.
Antagonist
A substance that blocks or reduces the effect of a neurotransmitter.
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