His104 mid term

Mesopotamia

Mesopotamia means “land between the rivers” (Tigris and Euphrates, in modern Iraq). It’s important because it’s where some of the first cities, governments, and writing systems developed. It’s basically the “cradle of civilization

Bronze Age

A period characterized by the use of bronze tools and weapons, advanced metalworking, and the rise of early urban civilizations. Bronze tools and weapons were stronger than stone, which allowed civilizations to expand, build cities, and create stronger armies.

Sumerians

The first major civilization in Mesopotamia. They built city-states like Ur and Uruk, invented writing (cuneiform), developed early law codes, and built ziggurats (temple towers). They basically set the foundation for later civilizations.

Cuneiform

The earliest known writing system. It used wedge-shaped marks pressed into clay tablets. It started for record-keeping (taxes, trade) but later was used for literature and laws.

Babylonians

An ancient civilization in Mesopotamia, known for the Code of Hammurabi, advancements in mathematics, and contributions to astronomy.

Hammurabi

King of Babylon who created Hammurabi’s Code — one of the first written law codes. It followed the idea of “an eye for an eye” and showed that laws applied differently depending on social class.

Assyrians

Known for their powerful and brutal military. They built one of the first large empires through conquest. They were organized and used advanced warfare tactics

Israelites

Ancient people of Israel. They are important for developing monotheism — belief in one God — which influenced Judaism, Christianity, and Islam.

Persians

Built a huge empire under leaders like Cyrus the Great. They ruled differently than others — instead of forcing culture, they allowed conquered people to keep their traditions and religions.

Polis (c. 800 BCE)

A Greek city-state (like Athens or Sparta). Each polis had its own government, army, and identity.

Hoplite

A heavily armed Greek foot soldier who fought in tight formations called phalanxes. They were key to Greek military success.

Athens

Known for developing democracy. It valued education, philosophy, art, and debate.

Sparta

Focused on military strength. Boys were trained from a young age to become soldiers.

Solon (c. 600 BCE)

Reformed Athenian laws to reduce debt slavery and give more citizens political rights.

Cleisthenes (c. 508 BCE)

Often called the “father of democracy.” He reorganized Athens so more citizens could participate in government.

Battle of Thermopylae (480 BCE)

A battle where King Leonidas of Sparta and 300 Spartans held off the Persian army led by Xerxes I. Even though they lost, it became a symbol of bravery.

Delian League (478 BCE)

An alliance of Greek city-states led by Athens to defend against Persia. Eventually, Athens used it to increase its own power.

Great Peloponnesian War (431–404 BCE)

A long war between Athens and Sparta. Sparta won, but the war weakened all of Greece.

Philip of Macedon (359–336 BCE)

Conquered the Greek city-states and united them.

Alexander the Great (336–323 BCE)

Philip’s son. He conquered Persia and spread Greek culture across Egypt, the Middle East, and parts of India.

Hellenistic Period (323–31 BCE)

After Alexander’s death. Greek culture spread and mixed with local cultures.

Socrates (469–399 BCE)

Philosopher who taught by asking questions. Executed by Athens for “corrupting the youth.”

Plato (427–347 BCE)

Student of Socrates. Wrote about justice, politics, and ideal government.

Aristotle (384–322 BCE)

Student of Plato. Studied science, politics, and ethics. Taught Alexander the Great.

Patricians

Wealthy, powerful Roman families.

Struggle of the Orders (c. 494–287 BCE)

Conflict between patricians (rich) and plebeians (commoners). Eventually led to more rights for plebeians.

Punic Wars (264–146 BCE)

Three wars between Rome and Carthage. Rome won and became the dominant power in the Mediterranean.

Hannibal

Carthaginian general who famously crossed the Alps with elephants to attack Rome.

Gaius Julius Caesar (100–44 BCE)

General who became dictator of Rome. His rise to power helped end the Roman Republic.

Ides of March (44 BCE)

March 15 — the day Caesar was assassinated by senators including Brutus.

First Triumvirate (60 BCE)

Political alliance between Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus.

Second Triumvirate (43 BCE)

Alliance between Octavian (Augustus), Mark Antony, and Lepidus.

Augustus (27 BCE–14 CE)

First Roman emperor. Began the Pax Romana.

Pax Romana (27 BCE–180 CE

A 200-year period of peace and stability in the Roman Empire.

Jesus of Nazareth (c. 4 BCE–30 CE)

Religious teacher whose teachings became Christianity.

Paul (c. 5–67 CE)

Spread Christianity across the Roman world.

Diocletian (284–305 CE)

Divided the empire into four parts (Tetrarchy) to make it easier to rule.

Constantine (306–337 CE)

Made Christianity legal and moved the capital to Constantinople

Aegean Sea

The body of water between Greece and Asia Minor (modern Turkey). It was extremely important because it allowed trade, travel, and cultural exchange. Greek civilization spread through sea routes.

Minoans (c. 2000–1400 BCE)

An early civilization on the island of Crete. They were strong traders and sailors. They had large palace complexes (like Knossos) and likely influenced later Greek culture. They mysteriously declined, possibly from natural disasters or invasions.

Mycenaeans (c. 1600–1100 BCE)

A warrior-based civilization on mainland Greece. They are connected to the legends of the Trojan War. After they collapsed, Greece entered a “Dark Age.”

“History Lesson”

Likely refers to a text or lecture theme about how Greeks understood their past — often using stories like The Iliad to teach moral lessons about honor, fate, and leadership.

Gordian Knot

A legendary knot tied in such a complicated way that no one could untie it. A prophecy said whoever untied it would rule Asia. Alexander the Great simply cut it with his sword. It symbolizes solving problems boldly instead of traditionally.

The Babylonians (play by Aristophanes)

A lost comedy that criticized Athenian politics and imperialism. Aristophanes often mocked leaders and war policies.

The Knights (Aristophanes)

A comedy attacking a powerful Athenian politician (Cleon). Shows how democracy could be manipulated by persuasive speakers.

The Clouds (Aristophanes)

A satire making fun of intellectuals like Socrates. It criticizes new philosophical thinking and education trends in Athens.

The Frogs (Aristophanes)

A comedy about deciding which tragic playwright is better (Aeschylus or Euripides). It also reflects on Athens’ political problems.

Lysistrata (Aristophanes)

A comedy where women refuse intimacy to force men to stop fighting the Peloponnesian War. It’s funny but also critiques war and male politics.

Medea (Euripides)

A tragedy about a woman who takes revenge on her husband by killing their children. It explores betrayal, gender roles, and emotional extremes.

Livy (59 BCE–17 CE)

A Roman historian who wrote a massive history of Rome from its founding. He mixed legend and history to promote Roman values.

Pyrrhus (319–272 BCE)

Greek king who fought Rome. Even when he won battles, he lost too many soldiers — leading to the term “Pyrrhic victory” (a win that costs too much).

Gauls

Celtic tribes from modern France. They once sacked (attacked and looted) Rome around 390 BCE.

Tiberius Gracchus (163–133 BCE)

Roman reformer who tried to redistribute land to poor citizens. He was killed for challenging the Senate — showing growing political violence.

Gaius Marius (157–86 BCE)

Roman general who reformed the army by allowing poor citizens to join. This made soldiers loyal to generals instead of Rome — which later caused civil wars.

Sulla (138–78 BCE)

Roman general who marched on Rome and became dictator. He used proscriptions (hit lists) to eliminate enemies.

Pompey (106–48 BCE)

General and member of the First Triumvirate. Later fought Caesar in a civil war and lost.

Crassus (115–53 BCE)

Very wealthy Roman and member of the First Triumvirate. Died in battle against Parthia.

Cloaca Maxima

One of the world’s earliest sewer systems in Rome. Shows Roman engineering skill.

Oppian Law (215 BCE)

A Roman law limiting women’s wealth and luxury during wartime. Later repealed, showing debates about gender roles.

Mark Antony (83–30 BCE)

Roman leader in the Second Triumvirate. Allied with Cleopatra. Lost to Octavian (Augustus).

Marcus Lepidus

Third member of the Second Triumvirate. Eventually pushed out of power.

Cleopatra (69–30 BCE)

Queen of Egypt. Allied with Caesar and later Mark Antony. Her defeat marked the end of the Roman Republic.

Caesarion

Cleopatra’s son, possibly Julius Caesar’s child. Killed by Octavian to remove a rival

Proscription

Official list of enemies of the state. People on it could be killed and their property taken.

“What Have the Romans Done for Us?”

A reference to Roman contributions like roads, aqueducts, law, sanitation, and infrastructure. It highlights how Rome improved daily life.

Zealots

Jewish nationalist group who violently resisted Roman rule.

The Great Revolt (66–73 CE)

Major Jewish rebellion against Rome. Ended with destruction of Jerusalem and the Second Temple.

Koine Greek

Common form of Greek used across the eastern Mediterranean during the Hellenistic and Roman periods. The New Testament was written in it.

Trajan (98–117 CE)

Roman emperor under whom the empire reached its largest size.

Augustine of Hippo (354–430 CE)

Christian theologian who shaped Western Christian thought. Wrote City of God.

Justin Martyr (100–165 CE)

Early Christian writer who defended Christianity against Roman criticism.

Perpetua (d. 203 CE)

Christian woman executed for her faith. Her diary is one of the earliest Christian texts written by a woman.