Introduction to Psychology

Psychology

• scientific study of behavior and mental processes

• studying individuals

  • how we act in groups

  • how we treat each other

  • how we feel about each other

• diverse perspectives

Multiple Influences on the Individual

Neural: biological (brain, chemicals)

Evolutionary: ancestors (before races, roots, or past)

Cognitive: how we process and how we see the world

Social: interactions or people influence our behavior

Cultural: where we are born; immediate social context; geographical location → personality

Developmental: nature/nurture

Scientific Methods

1. making observations

2. defining a problem

3. proposing a hypothesis

4. gathering evidence or testing the hypothesis

5. theory building

Theory Construction

• Theory

• Hypothesis

• Empirical Research

• If … then

  • findings support the hypothesis

    • confidence in theory increases

  • findings do not support the hypothesis

    • revise and refine the theory

    • discard the theory

Quantitative Research Process (Deductive)

• measure variables

• assess the impact of these variables on an outcome

• test theories or broad explanations

• apply results to a large number of people

1. Identifying the Research Problem

   • description and explanation oriented

2. Reviewing the Literature

   • major role

   • justification for the research problem and specification for the need for the study

3. Specifying a Purpose for Research

   • specific and narrow

   • measurable, observable data

4. Collecting Data

   • predetermined instruments

   • numeric (numbered)

   • large number of individuals

5. Analyzing and Interpreting Data

   • statistical analysis

   • description of trends, comparison of groups, or relationship among variables

   • a comparison of results with predictions and past studies

6. Reporting and Evaluating Research

   • standard and fixed

   • objective and unbiased

• 1 - 3 are not as linear, you can still make revisions

A. Independent Variables

• factors, treatments, predictions, determinants, antecedent

• this is the expectation that this variable will influence the outcome

B. Intervening Variables

• Sometimes there are intervening variables identified and examined in research, sometimes there are none

C. Dependent Variables

• outcome, effect, criterion, consequence

• What is the outcome of the study?

Experiments

• A deliberate manipulation of a variable to see if corresponding changes in behavior result, allowing the determination of cause and effect relationships

  • Independent Variable (cause) : the one that is manipulated or varied to see if it will influence the dependent variable

  • Dependent Variable (effect): the one that is affected by the independent variable

• The only way to determine if one thing is causally related to another is via an experimental design

  • In an experiment, you purposely manipulate variables, rather than just measure already existing differences.

  • Random Assignment of Participant Groups

    • Experimental Group: group that receives the manipulation

    • Control Group: group that does not receive the manipulation

Elements of a Simple Psychological Experiment

• Experimental designs are the most powerful research designs for identifying cause-and-effect relationships

3 Necessary Conditions for Causation

1. The Relationship Condition: Variables A and B must be related in a logical way

2. The Temporal Antecedence Condition: proper time order must be established

3. The Lack of Alternative Explanation Condition: The relationship between variables A and B must not be due to some confounding extraneous or “third variable”

   • Confounds:

     • Any difference between the experimental and control groups aside from IV

     • Makes IV effects uninterpretable

       • Cause and effect is possible to infer, with random assignment and manipulation of independent variable

Pitfalls in Experimental Design

1. Placebo Effect

   • Improvement resulting from the mere expectation of improvement

   • Participants must be blind to their assignment to groups

   • Placebos show many of the same characteristics as real drugs

2. Nocebo Effect

   • Harm resulting from the mere expectation of harm

3. Experimenter Expectancy Effect

   • When researchers’ hypotheses lead them to unintentionally bias a study outcome

   • Clever Hans, the mathematical horse

   • Using a double-blind design can decrease this

4. Demand Characteristics

   • Cues that participants pick up allowing them to guess at the researchers’ hypotheses

   • Disguising the purpose of the study or using ”filter” items can help to decrease them

Correlation Designs

• Examine how 2 variables are related

• Correlations vary from -1 to +2 and can be:

  • Positive: as one increases, so does the other

  • Negative: as one increases, the other decreases

  • Zero: no relationship between variables

• Depicted in a scatterplot

Illusory Correlation

• Perception of a statistical association where none exists

• Examining a probability table helps to explain why we are all prone to seeing relationship where none exists

• Just because 2 things are related, does not mean that one causes another

• 3 Possible Explanations

  • A causes B

  • B causes A

  • C causes both A and B

Qualitative Research Process (Inductive)

• Learn about the views of individuals

• Assess a process over time

• Generate theories based on participant perspectives

• Obtained detailed information about a few people or research sites

• Inductive Approach

  • Typically used in qualitative research

1. Researcher gathers information

   • Interviews, observations

2. Researcher asks open-ended questions of participants or records field notes

3. Researcher looks for broad patterns, generalizations, or theories from themes or categories

4. Generalizations or theories to past experiences

3 Areas of Ethical Concern for Social and Behavioral Scientists

• Research Ethics

  • A set of principles to guide and assist researchers in conducting ethical studies

• Relationship between Society and Science

  • Revolve around the extent to which societal concerns and cultural values should direct the course of research

• Professional Issues

  • Research Misconduct: the fabrication, falsification, or plagiarism in proposing, performing, or reviewing research or reporting research results

Treatment of Research Participants “Basic” Research Ethics

• Non-Maleficence

  • Research should avoid harming participants

• Beneficence

  • Research on human subjects should produce some positive and identifiable benefit rather than simply be carried out for its own sake

• Autonomy or Self-Determination

  • Research participants’ values and decisions should be respected

• Justice

  • All people should be treated equally

  • There must be fairness in the distribution of benefits and possible risks across all research participants

• Concerns about Deception

  • Sometimes full disclosure of the nature and purpose of the study will alter the outcome and invalidate the study

  • Deception: misleading or withholding information from the research participant

  • Debriefing: a post study interview in which all aspects of the study are revealed, any reasons for deception are explained , and any questions the participant has about the study are answered

• Freedom to Withdraw

  • Participants have the right to withdraw from a study at any time unless otherwise constrained by their official capacity or roles

  • Participants’ perspective might not be sufficient

• Confidentiality, Anonymity, and the Concept of Privacy

  • Privacy

    • A person’s freedom to identify the time and circumstances under which information is shared with or withheld from others

    • The person’s right to decline receiving information that he or she does not want

  • Confidentiality

    • Not revealing the the identity of the participant to anyone other than the researcher or his or her staff

Social Recognition Biases

• Belief Perseverance

  • Motivated by a desire to be certain about one’s knowledge

  • Tendency to hold doggedly onto a belief, even in the face of evidence that would convince most people that the belief is false

• Confirmation Bias

  • A tendency to search out information that support one’s beliefs while ignoring contrary information

  • Strongly held prejudices include both belief perseverance and confirmation bias

• Availability Heuristic

  • Occurs when we experience unusual or very memorable events and then overestimate how often such events typically occur

Pseudoscience

• Emotional Reasoning Fallacy: using emotions rather than evidence as the guide

• Bandwagon Fallacy: lots of people believe it so it must be true

• “Not Me” Fallacy: other people may have biases but not me

• Intuition

  • Spontaneous perception or judgment not based on reasoned mental steps

• Common Sense

  • Another kind of intuition because of its dependence on informal methods

  • Emphasizes the agreement of a person's judgment with the shared attitudes and experiences of a larger group of people

• Good Scientists

  • Aware they might be wrong

  • Scientific knowledge is always tentative and open to revision

  • Science forces us to question our findings and conclusions

Public Skepticism of Psychology (Lilienfeld)

6 Common Criticisms of the Scientific Basis of Psychology and 6 Rebuttals

• Psychology…

  • Is merely common sense (from scientific method)

  • Does not scientific methods

  • Cannot yield meaningful generalizations because everyone is unique

  • Does not yield repeatable results

  • Cannot make precise predictions

  • Is not useful to society

• Public Skepticism towards Psychology

  • Psychology’s failure to police itself

  • The problematic face of public psychology

    • Popo psychologists

  • Confusion between psychologists and psychotherapists

    • Media is to blame

  • Hindsight Bias

    • Obviousness

  • The illusion of understanding

    • Personal experience vs factual studies

  • Greedy reductionism

    • Simplifying

  • The scientific impotence excuse

    • Ignore scientific facts

  • Failure to distinguish basic from applied research

    • Basic: empirical or test theories

    • Applied: program applied to groups