Introduction to Psychology

Psychology

scientific study of behavior and mental processes
studying individuals
  * how we act in groups
  * how we treat each other
  * how we feel about each other
diverse perspectives

Multiple Influences on the Individual

Neural: biological (brain, chemicals)

Evolutionary: ancestors (before races, roots, or past)

Cognitive: how we process and how we see the world

Social: interactions or people influence our behavior

Cultural: where we are born; immediate social context; geographical location → personality

Developmental: nature/nurture

Scientific Methods

making observations
defining a problem
proposing a hypothesis
gathering evidence or testing the hypothesis
theory building

Theory Construction

Theory
Hypothesis
Empirical Research
If … then
  * findings support the hypothesis
    * confidence in theory increases
  * findings do not support the hypothesis
    * revise and refine the theory
    * discard the theory

Quantitative Research Process (Deductive)

measure variables
assess the impact of these variables on an outcome
test theories or broad explanations
apply results to a large number of people

Identifying the Research Problem
* description and explanation oriented
Reviewing the Literature
* major role
* justification for the research problem and specification for the need for the study
Specifying a Purpose for Research
* specific and narrow
* measurable, observable data
Collecting Data
   * predetermined instruments
   * numeric (numbered)
   * large number of individuals
Analyzing and Interpreting Data
   * statistical analysis
   * description of trends, comparison of groups, or relationship among variables
   * a comparison of results with predictions and past studies
Reporting and Evaluating Research
* standard and fixed
* objective and unbiased

1 - 3 are not as linear, you can still make revisions

A. Independent Variables

factors, treatments, predictions, determinants, antecedent
this is the expectation that this variable will influence the outcome

B. Intervening Variables

Sometimes there are intervening variables identified and examined in research, sometimes there are none

C. Dependent Variables

outcome, effect, criterion, consequence
What is the outcome of the study?

Experiments

A deliberate manipulation of a variable to see if corresponding changes in behavior result, allowing the determination of cause and effect relationships
* Independent Variable (cause) : the one that is manipulated or varied to see if it will influence the dependent variable
* Dependent Variable (effect): the one that is affected by the independent variable
The only way to determine if one thing is causally related to another is via an experimental design
  * In an experiment, you purposely manipulate variables, rather than just measure already existing differences.
  * Random Assignment of Participant Groups
    * Experimental Group: group that receives the manipulation
    * Control Group: group that does not receive the manipulation

Elements of a Simple Psychological Experiment

Experimental designs are the most powerful research designs for identifying cause-and-effect relationships

3 Necessary Conditions for Causation

The Relationship Condition: Variables A and B must be related in a logical way
The Temporal Antecedence Condition: proper time order must be established
The Lack of Alternative Explanation Condition: The relationship between variables A and B must not be due to some confounding extraneous or “third variable”
   * Confounds:
     * Any difference between the experimental and control groups aside from IV
     * Makes IV effects uninterpretable
       * Cause and effect is possible to infer, with random assignment and manipulation of independent variable

Pitfalls in Experimental Design

Placebo Effect
   * Improvement resulting from the mere expectation of improvement
   * Participants must be blind to their assignment to groups
   * Placebos show many of the same characteristics as real drugs
Nocebo Effect
* Harm resulting from the mere expectation of harm
Experimenter Expectancy Effect
   * When researchers’ hypotheses lead them to unintentionally bias a study outcome
   * Clever Hans, the mathematical horse
   * Using a double-blind design can decrease this
Demand Characteristics
* Cues that participants pick up allowing them to guess at the researchers’ hypotheses
* Disguising the purpose of the study or using ”filter” items can help to decrease them

Correlation Designs

Examine how 2 variables are related
Correlations vary from -1 to +2 and can be:
  * Positive: as one increases, so does the other
  * Negative: as one increases, the other decreases
  * Zero: no relationship between variables
Depicted in a scatterplot

Illusory Correlation

Perception of a statistical association where none exists
Examining a probability table helps to explain why we are all prone to seeing relationship where none exists
Just because 2 things are related, does not mean that one causes another
3 Possible Explanations
  * A causes B
  * B causes A
  * C causes both A and B

Qualitative Research Process (Inductive)

Learn about the views of individuals
Assess a process over time
Generate theories based on participant perspectives
Obtained detailed information about a few people or research sites
Inductive Approach
* Typically used in qualitative research

Researcher gathers information
* Interviews, observations
Researcher asks open-ended questions of participants or records field notes
Researcher looks for broad patterns, generalizations, or theories from themes or categories
Generalizations or theories to past experiences

3 Areas of Ethical Concern for Social and Behavioral Scientists

Research Ethics
* A set of principles to guide and assist researchers in conducting ethical studies
Relationship between Society and Science
* Revolve around the extent to which societal concerns and cultural values should direct the course of research
Professional Issues
* Research Misconduct: the fabrication, falsification, or plagiarism in proposing, performing, or reviewing research or reporting research results

Treatment of Research Participants “Basic” Research Ethics

Non-Maleficence
* Research should avoid harming participants
Beneficence
* Research on human subjects should produce some positive and identifiable benefit rather than simply be carried out for its own sake
Autonomy or Self-Determination
* Research participants’ values and decisions should be respected
Justice
* All people should be treated equally
* There must be fairness in the distribution of benefits and possible risks across all research participants
Concerns about Deception
  * Sometimes full disclosure of the nature and purpose of the study will alter the outcome and invalidate the study
  * Deception: misleading or withholding information from the research participant
  * Debriefing: a post study interview in which all aspects of the study are revealed, any reasons for deception are explained , and any questions the participant has about the study are answered
Freedom to Withdraw
* Participants have the right to withdraw from a study at any time unless otherwise constrained by their official capacity or roles
* Participants’ perspective might not be sufficient
Confidentiality, Anonymity, and the Concept of Privacy
  * Privacy
    * A person’s freedom to identify the time and circumstances under which information is shared with or withheld from others
    * The person’s right to decline receiving information that he or she does not want
  * Confidentiality
    * Not revealing the the identity of the participant to anyone other than the researcher or his or her staff

Social Recognition Biases

Belief Perseverance
* Motivated by a desire to be certain about one’s knowledge
* Tendency to hold doggedly onto a belief, even in the face of evidence that would convince most people that the belief is false
Confirmation Bias
* A tendency to search out information that support one’s beliefs while ignoring contrary information
* Strongly held prejudices include both belief perseverance and confirmation bias
Availability Heuristic
* Occurs when we experience unusual or very memorable events and then overestimate how often such events typically occur

Pseudoscience

Emotional Reasoning Fallacy: using emotions rather than evidence as the guide
Bandwagon Fallacy: lots of people believe it so it must be true
“Not Me” Fallacy: other people may have biases but not me
Intuition
* Spontaneous perception or judgment not based on reasoned mental steps
Common Sense
* Another kind of intuition because of its dependence on informal methods
* Emphasizes the agreement of a person's judgment with the shared attitudes and experiences of a larger group of people
Good Scientists
  * Aware they might be wrong
  * Scientific knowledge is always tentative and open to revision
  * Science forces us to question our findings and conclusions

Public Skepticism of Psychology (Lilienfeld)

6 Common Criticisms of the Scientific Basis of Psychology and 6 Rebuttals

Psychology…
  * Is merely common sense (from scientific method)
  * Does not scientific methods
  * Cannot yield meaningful generalizations because everyone is unique
  * Does not yield repeatable results
  * Cannot make precise predictions
  * Is not useful to society
Public Skepticism towards Psychology
  * Psychology’s failure to police itself
  * The problematic face of public psychology
    * Popo psychologists
  * Confusion between psychologists and psychotherapists
    * Media is to blame
  * Hindsight Bias
    * Obviousness
  * The illusion of understanding
    * Personal experience vs factual studies
  * Greedy reductionism
    * Simplifying
  * The scientific impotence excuse
    * Ignore scientific facts
  * Failure to distinguish basic from applied research
    * Basic: empirical or test theories
    * Applied: program applied to groups