AOS 1 - Geography - Melting Glaciers + Ice Sheets

Where is Greenland located in the world?

Greenland is located in the Northern Hemisphere, with a 60-83 degrees latitude north of the equator, and in longitude is located as 71.7069° N, 42.6043° W. Countries surrounding or in close vicinity to Greenland include Canada's Ellesmere Islands, Canada and Iceland, with all of them being found in the Arctic Ocean.

Ice melting in Greenland

• NASA completed a study on the melting rate, studying from 1992 - 2018, in the 1990s 33 billion tons of ice was lost per year, this has accelerated to an average of 234 billion tons by then end of the study in 2018.

• During the study, meteorologists recorded a 2.8°C increase in annual surface temperatures.

• The dangers of this increase in melting is the increase in sea level that comes with it, currently it is believed that the melting Greenland ice is responsible for 25% of the global sea level rise.

• With sea levels rising 3 millimeters each year, Greenland is responsible for 1 of those millimeters.

Info about Greenland Ice sheet

• the ice sheet covers 1.7 million square kilometres, roughly 80% of the surface of Greenland

• the average altitude is 2,135 metres

• is dome-like in shape

• Contains 11% of the world's freshwater

Impacts of melting ice in Greenland (PROMMTRRD)

1. People movement (Social, Negative, National)

2. Rising sea levels (Environmental, Negative, Global)

3. Opportunities for fisheries (Economic, Positive, National)

4. Mental health issues (Social, Negative, Local/National)

5. Mining potential (Economic, Positive, National)

6. Tourism opportunities (Economic, Positive, National)

7. Reduction of freshwater resources (Social, Negative, Local)

8. Reduction of biodiversity (Environment, Negative, National)

9. Disruption of social connection (Social, Negative, National)

What is a GLOBAL response to the impacts of land cover change?

Paris Agreement

• WHO: Adopted by almost 200 countries

• WHAT: Is a pledge agreed upon by almost all the world's nations to reduce greenhouse gas emissions

• WHEN/WHERE: Opened for signature on the 22nd of April, 2016, came into action of the 4th of November 2016, in Paris.

• WHY: There is a list of commitments, this includes limiting global temperature rise to 1.5C, and keeping it well below 2.0C. Every year the countries meet to discuss climate commitments at international summits called COPs (Conference of Parties.)

How effective has this global response been?

CRITERIA: Meeting aims/targets

• 2024 was the hottest calendar year on record to exceed 1.5°C, since pre-industrial times.

• The cumulative effect of the emission reductions won't be large enough to keep temperatures under that limit

• the global temperatures needs to sharply drop in order for the world to remain below 2.0°C.

• So far the Paris Agreement has proved effective in implementing more sustainable methods, such as renewable energy sources, but at the current rate it is not enough, making it not overly effective.

What is a NATIONAL response to the impacts of land cover change?

Visit Greenland - Towards more Tourism

• WHO: Visit Greenland

• WHAT: A new tourism strategy titled 'Towards More Tourism 2021 - 2024'.

• WHEN: 2021-2024

• WHERE: Greenland, Nuuk The increase in tourism has lead to the construction of Nuuk's (Greenland's capital) new airport, with two more on the way. With this, American's will now be able to take a nonstop, four hour flight from New Jersey to Nuuk.

• WHY: The main aims of this tourism response is to take advantage of this increase in tourism, and accommodate it, allowing for economic growth, jobs and more sustainable development.

How effective has this national response been?

CRITERIA: Environmental and economic sustainability

• Economically, the increase in tourism will prove beneficial, as it will increase the GDP, and create more jobs

• The construction of new airports will allow for more foreign tourists to arrive in Greenland

• Foreign tourism directly accounted for 1,075 jobs in 2023

• Foreign tourism contributed with revenue to Greenland of almost DKK 1.9 billion, in 2023

• Economically it has been sustainable, due to these reasons

• Environmentally, the use of greenhouse gas emissions for transportation (by tourists) will impact the Greenland environment. The environment is the main focus of this tourism plan, which reduces the impacts, with sustainability being prioritised.

What is a LOCAL response to the impacts of land cover change?

GRISCO

• WHO: This was formed through a collaboration between the Artic Centre at the University of Finland, local Greenlandic communities, and other academic partners.

• WHAT: GRISCO is a community designed response to climate change and the melting of ice sheets and glaciers

• WHEN: There isn't any information about when it begun, but it was scheduled to end in October of 2023.

• WHERE: Ilulissat, Disko Bay and Greenland

• WHY: The main aim of this project was to take action on the impacts of climate change, by conserving ice sheets present in Ilulissat, Disko Bay and Greenland, they did this by creating a research project, looking at the use of sea bed anchored curtains, positioned 100 metres below the ocean surface.

How effective has this local response been?

CRITERIA: Meeting targets/aims

• The research into the the sea bed anchored curtains proved effective, with the model showing that it would reduce melting by 45%.

• They aimed to implement the Payments for Ecosystem Services principle, which would create an alternate source of income for farmers and landowners who would be paid to care for the land. Evidence of this occurring havn't been seen.

• The research project, and strong involvement of the Greenlandic commuinity makes this response effective.

List the criterion used to measure the effectiveness of a response

• Meeting targets/aims

• Cost/benefit - does the level of success justify the cost

• Economic sustainability (is it affordable? Does it generate income/jobs? Will it be able to be ongoing in the future?

• Environmental sustainability (Is of good. or neutral for the environment?)

• Social sustainability (Is it fair/equitable for all people?)

Provide data on the social impacts of ice melting in Greenland

Mental health issues

• 76% of Greenlanders saying they have personally experienced the effects of climate change

• Greenland has one of the highest suicide rates in the world with 96 per 100,000 people

Disruption to social connection

• Frozen sea usually provides a highway between settlements, with dog sleds being used to travel across, but due to climate change, this isn't occurring

• 67% of residents think that the crisis will harm the sled dogs, leading to the loss of connection between this unique dog breed.

Provide data on the environmental impacts of ice melting in Greenland

Rising sea level

• The annual melting rate of Greenland is responsible for over 25% of global sea level rise

• It is predicted that by 2100 sea levels will have risen by 1 meter, threatening communities on low-lying locations such as small islands in the Pacific

Loss of biodiversity

• Ecosystems are losing nutrients for the plankton, which feed polar cod, which feed seals and polar bears, this melting is harming entire food chains.

• Narwhals and walrus' are not just cold-tolerant but ice-dependent.

• The WWF has declared polar bears as vulnerable, with a worldwide population of 26,000, due to habitat loss.

Provide data on the economic impacts of melting ice in Greenland.

Opportunities for fisheries

• Greenland's economy is greatly reliant on their fishing industry, with it accounting for 50% of their economy, and employing over 3,500 people

• The nutrients being released by the melting ice has drawn an abundance of mackerel, herring, cod, and tuna

Tourism opportunities

• Since 2020, tourism has contributed 25% to the country's GDP, creating over 1000 jobs.

• In 2023 Greenland experienced the highest tourism numbers yet.

What is a glacier?

• A body of ice formed on land in motion, confined by terrain, most commonly in valleys.

• Ice and snow accumulate and flows downhill under its own weight and gravity to a point called terminus, where the ice has melted.

• The main glacial features of a glacier is formed through processes such as erosion and deposition.

What is meltwater?

Water that flows from the downhill/bottom of the glacier

What is ablation?

Water that flows from the downhill/bottom of the glacier

What is albedo?

• Albedo is the fraction of light that a surface reflects.

• The albedo of Earth's surface (atmosphere, ocean, land surfaces) determines how much incoming solar energy, or light, is immediately reflected back to space. Low albedo means that less is being reflected back, increasing the melting rate.

What causes glacier advancing/retreating?

Glacier expanse can expand and contract seasonally. Glacial volume is measured on the mass balance between ice gained and ice lost.

What is the process of a melting glacier/formation?

• Glaciers form as snow and ice accumulate and move downhill.

• This buildup occurs in the zone of accumulation, the first stage of a glacier, where the conditions are cold, at high altitudes and longitudes.

• As the glacier advances, it reaches the zone of ablation, where ice loss occurs through melting and evaporation.

• This process takes place in the second stage of the glacier and continues until the terminus, where the ice fully transitions into meltwater.

• As ice moves, it also scrapes and removes rock, this material is called moraine and it is transported downhill to the terminus with the meltwater.

What other natural processes influence glacial landscapes?

• Erosion and deposition

• Ice scrapes, scours, and removes rock as it moves down the valley floor. The material removed is called moraine.

• When it is deposited it becomes known as till, and creates a floodplain.

• The erosion of rock can create arete, cirque and horns.

What are ice sheets?

Masses of ice that bury large tracts of land beneath them, and they are not confined to valleys. Examples include Antarctica, and Greenland. Ice sheets were at their peak 18,000-20,000 years ago (LGM).

What are some natural characteristics that impact ice sheets and glaciers?

• The climate that it needs to form, which is that it needs to be sufficiently cold all year round. These conditions are usually found at high latitudes (above 60 degrees north and south of the equator) or high altitudes.

• Ice sheets exist only on Greenland and Antarctica, and they spread out in broad domes in multiple directions, due to the need for particular conditions.

• Glacial features are formed by processes such as erosion, and deposition.

What are humans reliant on when living in regions covered in ice?

• Very few people live in ice regions, often only on the margins, in countries such as Russia, Canada, Nepal)

• They are reliant on the meltwaters for fishing, agriculture, freshwater, food, soil replenishment, and climate regulation.

• Approx 80% of freshwater supply emates from mountain ranges.

What are biodiversity levels like?

• Biodiversity is low due to the limited productivity and number of ecological niches.

• Limited solar radiation, means ecosystems have short growing seasons, and slow metabolism.

What species are found in ice regions?

• Only particular species with adaptations suitable for these harsh conditions, such as polar bears, reindeer, penguins, and seals live in these regions.

• Plant species that are found in these conditions include algae, lichens, fungi.

How has tourism responded to these ice regions?

• There has been an increase of tourism in the regions, due to the increasing popularity of many snow sports, the aesthetic beauty of glacier landscapes, and the looming loss of these locations.

• There are a number of train journeys, like for example the Glacier Express, spanning from Zermatt to St Moritz in Switzerland.

• This trip attracts 250,000 tourists each year, therefore there has been more development in alpine regions.

What are some natural causes of climate changes that is leading to the melting of glaciers?

Variations in solar energy

• The amount of solar energy that the Earth receives is not constant, meaning the amount can change. Therefore the distance between the Earth and Sun changes, producing periodic climate cycles/changes or global glaciation and warming.

Oceanic circulation changes

• The direction of ocean currents can change, which can alter the climates as a result. Examples include the La Nina and El Nino cycles.

Volcanic activity

• Volcanic eruptions can inject large amounts of dust and gases into the atmosphere, which can lead to the warming or cooling of the climate.

Plate tectonics

• Plate tectonics are responsible for the distribution of landmasses, this movement can change oceanic and atmospheric circulation patterns.

What are some human causes of climate change?

Alteration of the composition of gases in the atmosphere

• More greenhouse gases have been injected into the atmosphere. These greenhouse emissions paired with the destruction forests and swaps that sequester the emissions has lead to global warming.

Alteration of landscapes

• Through the construction of hard surfaces in cities, there have been changes in solar radiation absorption. These landscapes are retaining the heat from the sun near the Earth's surface heightening the greenhouse effect.

Direct addition of heat to the atmosphere

• Many daily activities completed by everyone on the planet can generate more heat in the atmosphere. These include burning fossil fuels for electricity, transportation, heating, cooling, ovens, household appliances.

Provide 3 examples of how the 3 human and 3 natural causes of climate change, may contribute to the melting of glaciers and ice sheets. Explain how they are interconnected.

1. Human-induced greenhouse gas emissions intensify natural climate variability, which in turn enhances warming and ice sheet loss. - Warmer atmospheric conditions can intensify El Niño, leading to shifts in ocean currents that bring warmer water to polar regions, melting ice from below.

2. Volcanic activity has both cooling and warming effects, but human-induced CO₂ emissions dominate in the long term, negating temporary volcanic cooling.

3. Human-driven land changes contribute to warming, which feeds into natural ice-albedo feedback, accelerating ice loss. - Warmer land surfaces contribute to regional atmospheric warming, which then affects glaciers thousands of kilometers away. The more ice lost, the more dark land cover is exposed, increasing melting rate. Both reduce the albedo of the Earth's surface.

Provide data on the Alteration of the composition of gases in the atmosphere

- The UN has estimatted that 60% of greenhouse gas emissions are from cities, yet cities only cover 2% of Earth

- The World Meteorological Organization states that carbon dioxide alone accounts for 64% of global warming

- The UN states that fossil fuels are the biggest contributor to global warming, accounting for over 75% of global greenhouse gas emissions.

Provide data on the Alteration of landscapes

- The UN states that each year an approximate 12 million hectares of forest are destroyed.

- The WWF reports that forest loss and damage accounts for around 10% of global warming

Provide data on the increase in cryoconite

- Cambridge University estimates that at least 13% of glacial melt is due to cryoconite.

- From Europe

What are some other causes for climate change?

Forest fires

• The burning of forests can greatly increase the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, while reducing the number of trees that can sequester/remove carbon from the atmosphere. The ash from major bushfires can also contribute to the melting of glaciers.

Increasing tourism

• With the increasing popularity of snow sports, the building of resorts and railways has lead to the burning of coal, which increase ice melting. The fear that some of these beautiful locations is also increasing tourism.

Increasing desertification

Desertification

• With the clearing of land for agriculture and farming more particulate matter has been entering air currents, deposited the matter on snow areas, accelerating melting. This global dust-deposition is accelerated by desertification.

What are the 7 major consequences of melting ice sheets?

1. Sea level rise

2. People movement due to loss of water availability

3. Decrease is agricultural output due to flooding

4. Freshwater resources decreasing

5. Plant and animal commuinities being threaten by changing environment conditions

6. Disease increasing transmission

7. Natural Disasters increasing in occurrence and severity.

When was the Last Glacial Maximum? How much of land was covered in ice then?

18,000 - 20,000 years ago, 30%

How much of land is covered in today?

10%

When was the Holocene Climate Optimum (HCO)?

The Holocene Climate Optimum (HCO) was a warm period during roughly the interval 9,000 to 5,000 years BP.

What types of geo tech is used in Greenland?

ICESat 2 Satellite

- This satellite precisely measures the height of Antarctica and Greenland, this can create a portrait of the distribution of land cover, and the rate at which it is changing.

- The elevation of the ice is determined using six laser beams, creating a denser grid, and a more detailed measure of the height of these ice sheets.

What are the 3 main forms of geospatial tech?

1. GNSS - Global Navigation Satellite

2. GIS - Geographic Information System

3. Remote Sensing

What is remote sensing?

- obtains information about the earth's surface without being in contact with it.

- data collected above the earth from space (or by aircraft/drone) and includes satellite images and aerial photographs

- data collected by remote sensing usually forms the base layer for a GIS map.

What is GIS?

- system that uses computer-based mapping software that collect, store, and analyse data and display this information as easily understood maps.

- represents data as layers that can be turned on and off

- eg: google earth

What is GNSS?

- understood as GPS, but GPS is actually apart of GNSS

- It is a network based on a system of at leased 24 satellites that circle the earth

- determines a user's exact position on the earth in terms of latitude, longitude and altitude

Why is geospatial tech important?

It enables us to visualise, manipulate, analyse, display and record geographic data.

- is used for logistics, transportation, meteorology, agriculture, healthcare, ecology and in the military.