Henry VIII

What age did he come to the throne?

17

his 3 initial aims

1- establish his status amongst other European monarchs (through marriage)

2- re-establish the nobility

3- establish himself as a warrior king

how he tried to achieve his 3 aims

1- married Catherine of Aragon, Arthur’s widow, on 11th June 1509

2- Henry played sports with the nobility sons & cancelled 175 bonds & disbanded council learned in law. However, Duke of Buckingham was executed for treason in 1521. He held a claim to the throne and Wolsey may have had him executed to warn away people looking for his power

3- early years of foreign policy were dominated by wars against France

Thomas Wolsey’s early life

son of a butcher, outstandingly academic, received a degree at Oxford

He was the bursar of his college (helping to develop admin skills)

Wolsey’s rise to power

he had received patronage under Henry VII & was noticed by Henry VIII

Henry grew tired of his fathers advisers & turned to Wolsey due to organisational skills

Henry was frustrated as his advisers would not let him go to war

Wolsey organised an expedition to France (1512)

Wolsey’s positions/titles

1514- all major business went to Wolsey

& archbishop of York (2nd highest church position in England)

1515- pope Leo X made Wolsey Cardinal

& lord chancellor

1518- Papal Legate (outranking archbishop of Canterbury), some people unhappy someone who came from a poor family held such a high position

government under Henry and Wolsey (change & continuity)

Continuity- JPs continue to control local government

Change- Henry let chief ministers do the ‘dirty work’, Henry VII did it all himself, Henry VIII only wanted an overview

parliament in his early years

used to grant extraordinary revenue & pass laws (continuity)

Wolsey’s main concerns

Having emerged as the dominant political figure, assuming much power, his concerns were the legal system, domestic policies & political decision-making

parliament under Cromwell

he exploited parliament much more than Henry

privy chamber

gained importance, only closest advisers of Henry could attend, minions travelled everywhere with Henry & had influence (20 men)

They did not trust Wolsey so Wolsey tried to have them remuoved

legal reforms under Wolsey

as lord chancellor he had power over legal system

court of chancery

Wolsey dealt with enclosure, contracts & wills

he promoted civil law

Court of chancery

Used to prosecute landowners & uphold fair justice.

Ended up becoming too clogged up

Civil law

Natural evidence & justice

star chamber

established under Henry VII but rarely used

used to ensure justice was fair against nobility, Wolsey used it to attack nobility who abused their power

Wolsey & the poor

encouraged private law suits, allowing commoners to bring complaints

legal cases up to 120 a year

Wolsey developed a reputation as a friend of the poor, especially with laws against enclosure

court of requests- heard cases from poor people (cheap & quick)

Court of requests

Heard cases from poor people

Cheap & quick

why were financial reforms necessary?

Henry spent too much on foreign policy & Wolsey recognised existing forms of raising money were not sustainable (parliamentary grants)

early financial reforms

1522- national survey saw how much tax evertone could pay, raised £200,000 (insufficient amount)

1523- Tudor subsidy introduced

Tudor subsidy

taxes focused on income, gained extraordinary revenue for war in France (still an insufficient amount)

What did the Tudor subsidy show

The subsidy showed Wolsey’s poor management of parliament as they were unwilling to grant him money

amicable grant

1525

based on valuations of property, granted without parliament approval

major failure, contributed to Wolsey’s downfall

many refused to pay it, Essex and Suffolk showed resistance, 400 people pardoned & tax was removed

Showed the public could not be relied on for money

foreign policy 1509-14

councillors advocated for peace

England joined the holy league in 1511

Henry sent an army of 10,000 to France in 1512- failure

King Ferdinand of Spain used this diversion to conquer french land, embarrassing for England

1512- Henry turned to Wolsey

1513- the battle of spurs (England & France)

1513- battle of flodden (England & Scotland)

Holy league

anti-french alliance consisting of Spain, England and HRE

Battle of spurs

Henry led an army to France & captured Tournai after winning the battle

(Tournai was sold back to France in 1519 for cheap due to England’s financial difficulties)

Battle of flodden

Scotland led an army into NE England while Henry was out of the country

1500 English troops killed, 10,000 Scottish including James IV, ended Scottish military threat

foreign policy 1514-26

England remained a minor power compared to Spain & France, Henry overestimated England’s power

1514- ran out of money, could not exploit the weaknesses of Scotland, had to seek peace

Did so by organising a marriage between between Louix XII and princess Mary, but Louix died in 1515

Mary married Duke of Suffolk, angering Henry as she could no longer be used for diplomatic purposes

Louix, Ferdinand and Maximilliam all died, meaning Europe had young & competitive monarchs

Henry & Francis were rivals so Henry looked for an alliance with Spain. Instead Spain and France formed an alliance, isolating England

Charles, King of Spain, became ruler of HRE, now the biggest threat

1518- Leo X called for a crusade against Ottoman Empire

Relationship between England & France improved after 1518, England returned Tournai & both feared Charles V

June 1520- Field of the cloth of gold

1521- Treaty of Brugge

1523-10,000 sent to Callais

1525- Spain defeated France & refused coalition with England, as England were not needed

• Henry forced to back down

• Charles rejected marriage with Mary

• Wolsey did not recover from the failure of the amicable grant

crusade against Ottoman Empire

opportunity to place England at centre of diplomacy, leading to Wolsey calling for Treaty of London

Treaty of London

popular & famed peace treaty

field of the cloth of gold

2 week meeting between Henry and Francis, near Callais, Henry lost a wrestling fight

The results of the meeting were minimal

Treaty of Brugge

secret alliance between Wolsey & Charles, seeking war with France

Henry sent 30,000 army to France

Foreign policy 1527-40

1527- alliance with French

Wolsey tried to pressure Charles V by implementing a trade embargo on Burgundy land, created issues in England (unemployment)

Pope depended on Charles so could not grant divorce as did not want to upset him

1532- alliance with France who were in a weak position and could not pressure emperor

Break with Rome- Charles was occupied with Ottoman Empire so did not attack England

1536- death of Catherine of Aragon and Anne Boleyn

1538- treaty of nice

1538- Pope Paul III excommunicated Henry VIII

Henry VIII was secured when Francis’ and Charles’ alliance broke down

Treaty of Nice

Charles V and Francis I agreed to break connections with England

Excommunication of Henry

English catholics no longer needed to obey their ruler

Risk of invasion from France

Foreign policy 1540-47

Foreign policy reverted back to aggression

James V was pro French and refused agreement with Henry

1542- battle of solway moss

1543- treaty of Greenwich

England became focused on France, allied with Hapsburgs & sent a 40,000 army to Callais, capturing Boulogne

Charles & Francis new peace treaty agreed

France send troops to Scotland and defeat English but fail to recapture Boulogne

Henry could not afford war anymore at the end of his reign, only way he could was through selling monastic land, borrowing money & debasing coinage

Battle of solway moss

Duke of Norfolk sent to Scotland, Scotland defeated, 6 days later James V dies

Treaty of Greenwich

Treaty between England and Scotland which agreed marriage between Edward and Mary QoS but Scotland later reversed the treaty ( in December 1543)

Problems with the church

Corruption

Pluralism

Non-residence

Wolsey had 2 illegitimate children and loved with mistress- proof of Catholic corruption

Anti-clericalism- opposition to religious authority in social & political matters

Death of Richard Hunne

Richard Hunne

Imprisoned after dispute with priests over his sons funeral, he was found dead and suspected mustered, damaged the reputation of the church

Luther

1517- worried about church’s focus on money, rich people could buy their way to heaven

Published his 95 theses, criticising the Catholic Church, which was supported in Germany

1520s- theses arrived in England through merchants and trade

The kings great matter

Mid 1920s- Henry became dissatisfied with his marriage as princess mary was the only child to survive infancy

Anne Boleyn was unwilling to be his mistress and wanted his marriage to Catherine of Aragon annulled

Pope Clement VII & Charles V

Clement was under the control of Charles

Charles & Catherine of Aragon were related so Clement was not prepared to insult Charles’ family

Wolseys methods for getting the divorce

Levictus- ‘A man should not marry their brothers widow or they will be left childless’ - Catherine claimed her marriage with Arthur had not been consummated, others disagreed with the quote & argued it is only relevant when the brother is still alive (Arthur was not), Deuteronomy- ‘It is a brothers duty to marry their brothers widow and have children on their behalf’

Diplomatic manoeuvres- Wolsey tried to reinstate an alliance with the pope but failed due to Charles’ control over the pope

Divorce proceedings were held in England as Wolsey could do so by being papal legate, pope sent cardinal campeggio to hear the divorce hearings, campeggio was instructed to delay the hearing

He was genuinely unwell and took months to reach England, when he arrived everything was thorough and slow

Catherine of Aragon then moved the hearing to Rome to delay further

Fall of Wolsey

After campeggio postponed the hearing, it was clear to Henry that Wolsey had failed

Domestic failures - amicable grant

Wolsey had little support due to a poor reputation

Wolsey accused of praemunire (working for the popes interests, rather than the kings)

The Boleyn family encouraged the fall of Wolsey and easily persuaded Henry

Wolsey was arrested on 4th nov 1530 and died on 7th nov

Thomas Moore

took over from Wolsey as lord chancellor

strong humanistic beliefs

catholic & intolerant of reformers/heretics

fond of Catherine of Aragon

rigid with his religious principals, meaning there was slow progress on the divorce

The start of the break with Rome

Henry benefited from anti-clericalism, lollards & humanists

1528- Anne Boleyn brought a book written by William Tyndale which stated royal authority was supreme above any power & had authority from God

1530- revival of the praemunire law (loyalty to the pope not the king), clergy collectively accused of praemunire, forcing them to acknowledge the king as supreme head of church to avoid punishment

1532- Acts in Restraint of Annates passed, despite opposition

excommunication

Pope Paul III excommunicated Henry in 1538

This meant an oath of loyalty was no longer applied & a rebellion could be sanctioned by the church

1532 acts in restraint of annates

Restricted before later abolishing payments to the pope, significant attack on pope’s right over the clergy

submission of clergy

may 1932

gave Henry the right to make church laws & chooses bishops without approval

provokes resignation of sir Thomas Moore

Thomas Cranmer

appointed as archbishop of Canterbury with pope’s approval

escalation of the break with rome (1532-34)

1532- Anne Boleyn is pregnant

next month, Henry and Anne marry

Catholic church saw this marriage as invalid

Cranmer annulled marriage to Catherine & Anne was crowned

September 1533- Anne gives birth to Elizabeth, legitimate by English law

1533- Act in restraint of appeals

Cranmer could now use the same arguments as Wolsey, but they were validated by law

1534 act of succession- marriage to Catherine was void, succession would be Anne’s children

1534- act of supremacy- acknowledged Henry as supreme head of church

1534- Treason act tightened, treason could be written or spoken, describing Henry as a heretic was punishable by death- Thomas Moore killed for speaking against Act of supremacy

1534- Act of first fruits and tenths

act in restraint of appeals

declared no legal cases (including annulments) could be appealed to the Pope, meaning Catherine could not appeal

act of first fruits and tenths

more money paid to the King rather than the pope

spread of Protestantism

White horse tavern, Cambridge- place where intellectuals met to discuss Lutheran ideas, including Cranmer

Protestantism spread more after 1529, when Henry encouraged criticism of the pope

Anne Boleyn & Cromwell also had influence on the spread

Cromwell influenced parliament & Boleyn influenced Henry

Cranmer spread protestant ideas in the south

Cromwell & Cranmer worked together to introduce more protestant teachings, but had to not offend Henry’s Catholic beliefs

protestant articles 1536-38

1536- act of 10 articles introduced, more protestant doctrine, it was a rushed compromise to try and quiet the religious discussion

& injunctions discouraged pilgrimages

1537- 7 sacraments reintroduced but with less status

1538- English Bible in every church

late 1538 religious change

Henry reverts back to Catholicism due to his own beliefs and the fear of Spanish and French invasion

U-turn to Catholicism

1539 act of 6 articles- denying transubstantiation was deemed heresy

government under Cromwell

introduced a more professional privy council

created 4 new posts

increased importance on parliament, used them frequently to achieve Break from Rome, used to strengthen the changes he was making

4 new posts

court of augmentations

court of general surveyors

court of first fruits and tenths

court of wards

roles of the 4 courts

augmentation- controlled land & finances previously under the control of the Catholic church

general surveyors- handles ex-monastic land

first fruits and tenths- collect money previously sent to Rome as annates

wards- collected money from the estate of a minor when they inherited land

opposition to religious change

disagreement with dissolution of monasteries

sir Thomas Moore

pilgrimage of grace, consequence of act of succession

Disagreement with dissolution of the monasteries

monasteries had an educational purpose which was lost when they were dissolved

nuns & monks became unemployed

& monasteries played a key role in local communities

Sir Thomas Moore’s opposition to change & execution

fell from royal favour because he did not support marriage to Anne

Moore refused to accept the succession act & royal supremacy (did not want to go against the Pope)

1535- trial of Moore

Sir Richard Rich claimed to hear Moore say he did not accept Henry as head of church

Moore was executed

opposition to religious change from the clergy

John Fisher- disagreed with actions against Catherine of Aragon, confronted Henry, refused to accept divorce, imprisoned & executed for high treason

opposition to religious change from nuns & monks

Elizabeth Barton, nun of Kent, had visions of the king dying after divorce

turned into local noise before reaching the king & rumours began to spread across the country leading to a campaign against the church

monks- 1532-33 refused to accept divorce & refused to go against Pope’s authority

dissolution of the monasteries

monasteries had become irrelevant, housing few monks, but they were wealthy, making them a target

Cromwell sent commissioners to survey the value of ecclesiastical land & investigate the conditions of monasteries, giving reason for them to be closed

In 1536, act was passed to dissolve smaller monasteries, by 1540 larger monasteries were also being dissolved

some monasteries used bribes to avoid closure, highlighting the contentious nature of the reforms

Dissolution was vital for crowns finances, allowing for more foreign campaigns, but harmed local communities as they lost education and healthcare

pilgrimage of grace causes

religious- dissolution of the monasteries

economic- riswing taxation, enclosure, poor harvests

political- opposition to Cromwell

pilgrimage of grace events

began in Lincolnshire, quickly spreading to Yorkshire

Led by Robert Aske, lawyer & keen advocate for monasteries

The rebels occupied York & demanded reversal of religious reforms

Henry pretended to negotiate, ofering pardons & promising reforms

Unrest flared up in 1537, Henry crushed the rebellion

Consequences of the pilgrimage of grace

Henry executed over 200 rebels, including Aske

monastic dissolution continued at a quicker rate

Henry strengthened royal authority in the north, reducing local influence

key causes of the fall of Cromwell

The Cleves marriage- Cromwell arranged this marriage as a protestant alliance, but Henry found her unattractive & annulled marriage

Noble rivalries- Cromwell had many enemies at court, namely Duke of Norfolk, Norfolk’s niece Catherine Howard caught Henry’s attention

Religious policies- Pushed Protestant reforms

Henry’s suspicions- no longer trusted Cromwell by 1540, believed rumours he was plotting against him

Key events in Cromwell’s fall

June 1540- Cromwell arrested

July- Executed for treason & heresy, same day Henry married Catherine Howard

Consequences of Cromwell’s fall

Howard family gained power, but Catherine was later executed for adultery

Henry never found another minister as good as Cromwell

Reformation slowed

securing the succession

1534 act of succession- Elizabeth became heir, Mary excluded

1536 second act of succession- Mary & Elizabeth declared illegitimate, Edward only heir

1543 third act of succession- Reinstated Mary and Elizabeth in line of succession after Edward

Final will confirmed this in 1546