PSYC 230 Chapter 5

hope

according to Erikson, openness to new experience tempered by wariness that occurs when trust and mistrust are in balance.

will

according to Erikson, a young child’s understanding that he or she can act on
the world intentionally; this occurs when autonomy, shame, and doubt are in balance

purpose

according to Erikson, balance between individual initiative and the willingness to cooperate with others

evolutionary psychology

theoretical view that many human behav- iors represent successful adaptations to the environment.

attachment

Enduring socioemotional relationship between infants and their caregivers

secure attachment

relationship in which infants have come to trust and depend on their mothers

avoidant attachment

relationship in which infants turn away from their mothers when they are reunited following a brief separation

resistant attachment

relationship in which, after a brief separa- tion, infants want to be held but are difficult to console.

disorganized (disoriented) attachment

relationship in which infants don’t seem to understand what’s happening when they are separated and later reunited with their mothers.

internal working model

Infant’s understanding of how responsive and dependable the mother is; thought to influence close relationships throughout the child’s life.

basic emotions

Emotions experienced by humankind that consist of three elements: a subjective feeling, a physiological change, and an overt behavior.

social smiles

Smile that infants produce when they see a human face

stranger wariness

first distinct signs of fear that emerge around 6 months of age when infants become wary in the presence of unfamiliar adults.

social referencing

behavior in which infants in unfamiliar or ambiguous environments look at an adult for cues to help them interpret the situation

parallel play

when children play alone but are aware of and interested in what another child is doing.

simple social play

play that begins at about 15 to 18 months; toddlers engage in similar activities as well as talk and smile at each other.

cooperative play

play that is organized around a theme, with each child taking on a different role; begins at about 2 years of age.

enabling actions

Individuals’ actions and remarks that tend to support others and sustain the interaction

constricting actions

Interaction in which one partner tries to emerge as the victor by threatening or contradicting the other.

prosocial behavior

Any voluntary behavior intended to benefit others.

altruism

prosocial behavior such as helping and sharing in which the individual does not benefit directly from his or her behavior.

empathy

act of experiencing another person’s feelings

social role

Set of cultural guidelines about how one should behave, especially with other people.

gender stereotypes

beliefs and images about males and females that are not necessarily true.

relational aggression

aggression used to hurt others by under- mining their social relationships.

gender identity

An individual's personal sense of their own gender as a male or female

gender-schema theory

theory that states that children want to learn more about an activity only after first deciding whether it is masculine or feminine.