Exam 2 REVIEW ROSS

Learning

a process leading to relatively enduring changes in behavior or knowledge due to experience.

broader than formal education; it includes adaptations based on life experiences.

Pavlov

Russian physiologist, is best known for his research on classical conditioning, demonstrating how stimuli can elicit responses, fundamentally shaping behaviorism and influencing modern psychology's understanding of learning.

Stimulus Generalization

The learned response occurs not only to the original stimulus but also to similar stimuli.

Example: A dog salivates to a low-pitched tone and also responds to a slightly higher-pitched tone.

Real-life Example: A dog that drools when a box of dog biscuits is shaken may also drool when a bag of cat food is shaken.

Classical Conditioning

First extensively studied learning process in psychology, also known as Pavlovian conditioning.

Defined as pairing a neutral stimulus with a response-producing stimulus until the neutral stimulus elicits the same response.

Involves automatic and reflexive behaviors.

Learning an association between two stimuli (neutral stimulus + unlearned stimulus).

Examples: Neutral stimulus (Pavlov's presence) paired with unlearned stimulus (food).

Little albert study

Conducted by Watson and Rayner in 1920 to demonstrate classical conditioning in humans.

a calm infant, was exposed to a white rat and showed no fear initially.

Fear was instilled in ( ) by pairing the rat (conditioned stimulus) with a loud clanging noise (unconditioned stimulus) that naturally triggered a fear response (unconditioned response).

Placebo effect

 refers to an individual’s psychological and physiological response to a fake treatment or drug.

can manifest both psychologically (changes in mood, perception of pain) and physiologically (changes in bodily functions).

Spontaneous recovery

The reappearance of a previously extinguished conditioned response after a period of rest, even when the CS is not presented during that time.

Implication: Suggests that the learned response is not completely unlearned; it remains in some form even after extinction.

Higher order conditioning

A process where a conditioned stimulus (CS) from a prior conditioning trial functions as an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) for a new trial.

Example:

A black square (new neutral stimulus) paired with a metronome (existing CS) leads to salivation (conditioned response, CR) when exposed to the black square alone.

In a real-life scenario: Laura develops a fear response to a doctor's white jacket (CS) after painful injections (UCS). If she then reacts with fear to a restaurant server in a white jacket, higher order conditioning occurs as the coffee aroma (new CS) evokes a fear response without direct pairing with the UCS.

Extinction

The gradual weakening and apparent disappearance of a conditioned response when the conditioned stimulus is presented without the unconditioned stimulus.

Process: Repeated presentation of the CS (e.g., ticking metronome) without the UCS (food) leads to it

Resistance to extinction

where a conditioned response persists even after reinforcement has stopped. Factors influencing this include reinforcement history, motivation, and the context of the behavior.

Discrimination training

involves teaching individuals to distinguish between different stimuli, reinforcing responses to specific stimuli while discouraging responses to others, thus enhancing perceptual and cognitive differentiation.

Learned helplessness

psychological phenomenon where individuals feel powerless to change their situation after repeated failures. This belief emerges from past experiences, leading to a lack of motivation and an expectation that efforts will be futile. It can contribute to depression and hinder problem-solving and resilience in challenging circumstances.

Partial reinforcement effect

occurs when a behavior is reinforced intermittently rather than continuously. This leads to greater resistance to extinction, as the individual continues to respond despite infrequent rewards. This concept, rooted in operant conditioning, explains why gamblers keep playing even after losing, hoping for occasional wins.

Charles Turner

• One of the first African American psychologists.

• Published work in psychology journals.

Contributions to Classical Conditioning:

• Conducted pioneering experiments using classical conditioning techniques with moths.

Groundbreaking Study (1914):

• Objective: Investigate whether moths can hear.

• Initial Findings: Only 3 out of 78 moths responded to sound, raising questions about their hearing ability or possible sluggishness.

Methodology:

• Used Pavlovian techniques:

  • Paired sound (Conditioned Stimulus, CS) with gentle handling (Unconditioned Stimulus, UCS).

  • Handling led to agitation (Unconditioned Response, UCR), while sound alone did not elicit a response.

  • Repeated pairings over several days.

Results:

• After conditioning, the sound (CS) caused most moths to flap their wings furiously (Conditioned Response, CR), indicating they could hear.

Importance of Research:

• Validated classical conditioning's applicability to non-traditional subjects like moths.

• Demonstrated innovative research under challenging conditions, including limited recognition and resources.

• Enhanced understanding of sensory perception in moths through scientific experimentation.

Taste Aversion

classically conditioned dislike for a food that occurs after illness related to that food.
ex; avoiding foods after motion sickness or illness.

The law of effect

proposed by Edward Thorndike, states that responses followed by satisfying outcomes are more likely to recur, while those followed by discomfort are less likely. This principle underpins operant conditioning, influencing behavior through reinforcement and punishment, thereby shaping learning and behavior over time.

Operant conditioning

a learning process through which behavior is modified by its consequences. Positive reinforcement encourages behavior by providing rewards, while negative reinforcement reduces undesirable behavior by removing aversive stimuli. Punishment can decrease unwanted behaviors. This theory, presented by B.F. Skinner, highlights the role of consequences in shaping actions.

Positive reinforcement

Positive Reinforcement:

Involves the addition of a reinforcing stimulus following a response.

Increases the likelihood of repeating the response in similar situations.

Examples include praise from a coach, bonus points for assignments, or social media likes.

Negative reinforcement

Negative Reinforcement:

Involves the removal, avoidance, or escape from an aversive stimulus following a response.

Increases the likelihood of repeating the escape or avoidance behavior.

Examples include taking aspirin to relieve a headache (escape behavior) or backing up data to avoid loss (avoidance behavior).

Positive punishment

(Punishment by Application):

Presentation of an aversive stimulus following a behavior.

Example: Reprimanding an employee for inappropriate dress.

Negative punishment

(Punishment by Removal):

Removal of a reinforcing stimulus following a behavior.

Example: Suspending a driver's license after speeding.

Observational learning

concept introduced by Albert Bandura, occurs when individuals acquire new behaviors by watching others. This process involves attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation. It emphasizes the role of modeling, where individuals imitate behaviors seen in others, highlighting the importance of social context in learning and the development of personal skill

Fixed interval schedule

type of reinforcement schedule in operant conditioning where an organism receives reinforcement after a set period of time has passed, regardless of the number of responses made. This schedule often leads to a predictable pattern of behavior, with increased responses as the interval deadline approaches.

Fixed ration schedule

a type of reinforcement schedule in behavioral psychology where a response is reinforced only after a specified number of responses has occurred. For example, in a fixed ratio 10 (FR10) schedule, a reward is given after every tenth response. This schedule often leads to high response rates.

Continuous reinforcement schedule

behaviorism concept where a desired behavior is reinforced every time it occurs. This approach strengthens the association between behavior and consequence, leading to rapid learning. However, it may result in quicker extinction of the behavior when reinforcement stops, compared to partial reinforcement schedules.

Conditioned reinforcement

occurs when a previously neutral stimulus gains the ability to reinforce behaviors after being associated with primary reinforcers. This process enhances the likelihood of a behavior being repeated. For instance, a praise word becomes rewarding when paired with a child's favorite treat, reinforcing positive actions over time.

Variable ratio schedule of reinforcement

behavioral conditioning strategy where reinforcement is delivered after a varying number of responses, rather than a fixed amount. This unpredictability strengthens the behavior, as individuals cannot predict when the next reward will come, leading to high rates of responding and increased persistence.

Bobo doll study

conducted by Albert Bandura in 1961, explored observational learning in children. In the experiment, children who observed an adult behaving aggressively towards a Bobo doll were more likely to imitate that behavior. This study highlighted the impact of modeling and reinforced the social learning theory in psychology.

Cognition

mental processes involved in acquiring knowledge and understanding through thought, experience, and the senses. It includes functions such as perception, memory, reasoning, decision-making, and problem-solving. Cognitive psychology studies these processes to understand how people think, learn, and remember, influencing behavior, education, and mental health interventions.

Thinking

omplex cognitive process involving perception, memory, judgment, and reasoning. It shapes our understanding, influences decision-making, and affects emotions. In psychology, it explores how individuals process information and solve problems, highlighting the interplay between conscious thought and subconscious influences. Cognitive biases and heuristics often shape our thinking patterns.

Single feature model of decision making

focuses on evaluating choices based on one predominant attribute or criterion. This approach simplifies complex decisions by allowing individuals to prioritize a single factor, such as cost or quality. However, it may overlook other important considerations, potentially leading to suboptimal outcomes in multifaceted scenarios.

Algorithms

often analyze behavior patterns, decision-making processes, and cognitive functions. They help in predictive modeling, assessing mental health, and personalizing treatment plans. Machine learning enhances understanding of complex psychological phenomena, allowing researchers to uncover hidden correlations and improve interventions, thereby contributing significantly to the fields of psychology and mental health.

Trial and error

fundamental learning process where individuals attempt various methods to solve a problem until successful. This approach is based on repeated attempts, gradually refining strategies based on feedback. It emphasizes perseverance and adaptability, key aspects of human cognition and behavior, illustrating the role of experience in learning.

Heuristics

mental shortcuts or rules of thumb that simplify decision-making processes. They allow individuals to quickly assess situations and make judgments without extensive analysis. Common types include availability heuristic (relying on immediate examples), representativeness heuristic (judging based on stereotypes), and anchoring heuristic (basing decisions on initial information).

Insight

reveal the complexity of human behavior and motivation. Factors like cognitive biases, social influences, and emotional states shape our decisions. Understanding these elements can enhance mental health, improve relationships, and promote personal growth. Awareness of psychological principles empowers individuals to navigate life's challenges more effectively.

Functional fixedness

cognitive bias that limits a person’s ability to use an object only in the way it is traditionally intended. This mental block can hinder creativity and problem-solving, as individuals may overlook alternative uses for objects or solutions to problems, thereby restricting innovative thinking and adaptability.

Mental set

a cognitive framework or approach that influences how a person perceives and responds to particular situations, often based on past experiences. This can lead to rigid thinking and hinder problem-solving abilities, as individuals may overlook new solutions or approaches that deviate from familiar patterns.

The representative heuristic

cognitive bias where individuals judge the probability of an event based on how closely it resembles typical examples or prototypes. This can lead to misestimations, as people often ignore relevant statistical information, relying instead on stereotypes or previous experiences, which may not accurately reflect reality.

Confirmation bias

tendency to search for, interpret, and remember information in a way that confirms one’s preexisting beliefs or hypotheses. This cognitive shortcut can lead individuals to overlook contradictory evidence, reinforcing their views and hindering objective decision-making. It plays a significant role in various fields, including psychology and social behavior.

Fallacy of positive instances

occurs when individuals only focus on confirming evidence while ignoring disconfirming instances. This cognitive bias leads to an overestimation of the validity of beliefs or hypotheses. For example, someone might believe in a lucky charm's effectiveness because they remember the times it coincided with success, overlooking failures.

Belief-bias effect

cognitive phenomenon where individuals' pre-existing beliefs influence their reasoning and decision-making processes. When evaluating arguments, people are more likely to accept conclusions that align with their beliefs, even if the reasoning is flawed. This bias can lead to errors in judgment and critical thinking.

Overestimation effect

cognitive bias where individuals overrate their abilities, performance, or the likelihood of positive outcomes. This phenomenon often arises due to overconfidence, leading to inaccuracies in self-assessment. It can impact decision-making and goal-setting, as people may pursue unrealistic expectations based on inflated perceptions of their capabilities.

wishful thinking bias

cognitive distortion where individuals favor outcomes they desire, leading them to overestimate the likelihood of positive events and underestimate negative ones. This bias can affect decision-making and assessments of risk, often resulting in unrealistic expectations and poor judgments, ultimately influencing personal and professional choices.

effect of environment on IQ test scores

significantly influence IQ test scores. Variables such as socioeconomic status, access to education, nutrition, and cultural exposure shape cognitive development. Children from enriched environments tend to perform better, as stimulation and resources enhance learning opportunities. Conversely, deprivation can hinder intellectual growth, highlighting the interplay between environment and cognitive abilities.

group IQ testing

assessment method used to evaluate the cognitive abilities of a group rather than individuals. It allows for efficient data collection and can help identify educational needs or potential. However, it may lack the precision of individual testing, and environmental factors can influence results and performance.

impact of social discrimination on IQ scores

can adversely affect IQ scores by limiting access to quality education and resources, fostering toxic stress, and creating a hostile environment that undermines cognitive performance. Marginalized individuals may experience diminished self-esteem and motivation, which can further impair their intellectual development and test outcomes, perpetuating cycles of inequality.

stereotype threat

psychological phenomenon where individuals at risk of confirming negative stereotypes about their social group experience anxiety and reduced performance. This fear can hinder academic achievement, creativity, and overall performance in various contexts. It underscores the impact of societal stereotypes on individual behavior and self-perception, affecting diverse populations.