ap psych - unit 3 vocab

absolute threshold

the minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50 percent of the time

accommodation

1) in sensation and perception, the process by which the eyes lens changes shape to focus near or far objects on the retina. 2) in developmental psychology, adapting our current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information

audition

the sense or act of hearing

aerial/atmospheric perspective

monocular cue to distance and depth based on the fact that more distant objects are likely to appear hazy and blurred

bottom up processing

analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain’s integration of sensory information

blind spot

the point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, creating a “blind” spot because no receptor cells are located there

binocular cues

depth cues, such as retinal disparity, that depend on the use of 2 eyes

change blindness

failing to notice changes in the environment

cones

retinal receptor cells that are concentrated near the center of the retina and that function in daylight or in well-lit conditions. The cones detect fine detail and give rise to color sensations

color constancy

perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color, even if changing illumination alters the wavelengths reflected by the object

conduction hearing loss

hearing loss caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea

cochlear implant

a device for converting sounds into electrical signals and stimulating the auditory nerve through electrodes threaded into the cochlea

cochlea

a coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear; sound waves traveling through the cochlear fluid trigger nerve impulses

convergence

visual depth cue that comes from muscles controlling eye movement as the eyes turn inward to view a nearby stimulus

difference threshold

the minimum difference between 2 stimuli required for detection 50% of the time. We experience the difference threshold as a just noticeable difference (jnd)

depth perception

the ability to see objects in 3 dimensions although the images that strike the retina are 2 dimensional; allows us to judge distance

ESP

(extrasensory perception) a claim which portrays the occurrence of perception when the sensory input is apart from the perceiver

embodied cognition

in psychological science, the influence of bodily sensations, gestures, and other states on cognitive preferences and judgments

fovea

the central focal point in the retina, around which the eyes cones cluster

feature detectors

nerve cells in the brain that respond to specific features of the stimulus, such as shape, angle, or movement

figure ground

the organization of the visual field into objects (the figures) that stand out from their surroundings (the ground)

frequency theory

in hearing, the theory that the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone, thus enabling us to sense its pitch

frequency

the number of complete wavelengths that pass a point in a given time (ex- per second)

familiar size

our knowledge of sizes of objects can affect our perception

gate-control theory

the theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological “gate” that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass onto the brain. The “gate” is opened by the activity of pain signals traveling up small nerve fibers and is closed by activity in larger fibers or by information coming from the brain

gestalt

an organized whole. Gestalt psychologists emphasize our tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes

grouping

the perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groups

hue

the dimension of color that is determined by the wavelength of light; what we know as the color names blue, green, and so forth

inattentional blindness

failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed somewhere else

intensity

the amount of energy in a light or sound wave, which we perceive as brightness or loudness, as determined by the wave’s amplitude

iris

a ring of muscle tissue that forms the colored portion of the eye around the pupil and controls the size of the pupil opening

inner ear

the innermost part of the ear, containing the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs

kinesthesia

the system of the body for sensing the position and movement of individual body

lens

the transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to help focus images on the retina

linear perspective

monocular cue to distance and depth based on the face that two parallel lines seem to come together at the horizon

light and shadow

used by the visual system as cues to determine depth perception and distance

monocular cues

depth cues, such as interposition and linear perspective, available to either eye alone

middle ear

the chamber between the eardrum and cochlea containing 3 tiny bones (hammer, anvil, stirrup) that concentrate the vibrations of the eardrum on the cochlea’s oval window

motion parallax

monocular distance cue in which object closer than the point of visual focus seem to move in the direction opposite to the viewers moving ahead, and object beyond the focus beyond the focus point appear to move in the same direction as the viewers head

optic nerve

the nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain

opponent process theory

the theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, yellow-blue, white-black) enable color vision. ex: some cells are stimulated by green and inhibited by red; others are stimulated by red and inhibited by green

oculomotor cues

consist of accommodation and vergence. Accommodation is the processes by which the lens changes shape in order to bring an object in focus on the retina

occlusion (interposition)

an obstruction or closure

perception

the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events

psychophysics

the study of relationships between the physical characteristics of stimuli, such as their intensity, and our psychological experience of them

priming

the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one’s perception, memory, or response

perceptual set

a mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another

parapsychology

the study of paranormal phenomena, including ESP and psychokinesis

parallel processing

the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brains natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision. Contrast with the step by step (serial) processing of most computers and of conscious problem solving

phi phenomenon

an illusion of movement created when 2 or more adjacent lights blink on and off in quick succession

perceptual constancy

perceiving objects as unchanging (having consistent shapes, size, brightness, and color) even as illumination ant retinal images change

perceptual adaptation

in vision, the ability to adjust to an artificially displaced or even inverted visual field

perceptual constancy

perceiving objects as unchanging (having consistent shapes, size, brightness, and color) even as illumination ant retinal images change

perceptual adaptation

in vision, the ability to adjust to an artificially displaced or even inverted visual field

pupil

the adjustable opening in the center of the eye through which light enters

place theory

in hearing, the theory that links the pitch we hear with the place where the cochleas membrane is stimulated

pitch

a tone's experienced highness or lowness; depends on frequency

pictorial cues

clues about distance that can be given in a flat picture

retina

the light sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing the receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information

rods

retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray; necessary for peripheral and twilight vision, when cones don't respond

retinal disparity

a binocular cue for perceiving depth: by comparing images from the retinas in the two eyes, the brain computes distance- the greater the disparity (difference) between the two images, the closer the object

relative height

(aka vertical position or elevation) used in visual and artistic perspective where distant objects are seen or portrayed as being smaller and higher in relation to items that are closer

relative size

a perceptual clue which allows you to determine how close objects are to an object of a known size

sensation

the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment

selective attention

the focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus

signal-detection theory

a theory predicting how, how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus (signal) amid background stimulation (noise). Assumes there is no single absolute threshold and that detection depends partly on a person’s experience, expectations, motivation, and alertness

subliminal

below one’s absolute threshold for conscious awareness

sensory adaptation

diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation

sensorineural hearing loss

hearing loss caused by damage to the cochlea’s receptor cells or to the auditory nerves

sensory interaction

the principle that one sense may influence another, as when the smell of food influences its taste

top-down processing

information processing guided by higher level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations

transduction

conversion of one form of energy into another. in sensation, the transforming of stimulus energies, such as sights, sounds, and smells, into neural impulses our brain can interpret

texture gradient

monocular cue to distance and depth based on the fact that objects seen at greater distances appear to be smoother and less textured

visual cliff

a laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals

vestibular sense

the sense of body movement and position, including the sense of balance

weber's law

the principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage (rather than a constant amount)

wavelength

the distance from the peak of one light or sound wave to the peak of the next. Electromagnetic wavelengths vary from the short blips of cosmic rays to the long pulses of radio transmission

young-helmholtz trichomatic theory

the theory that the retina contains 3 different color receptors - one most sensitive to red, one to green, one to blue - which, when stimulated in combination, can produce the perception of any color

gestalt (person)

“principles of gestalt” dictates how we perceive life

torsten wiesel

studied the visual system and found the feature detectors in the occipital lobes visual cortex. Won a nobel prize for this with david hubel

ernst weber

established “weber’s law” which was the principle that 2 stimuli, to perceive their difference, must be a constant proportion, not a constant amount. Worked heavily in sensation and difference thresholds

gustav fechner

studied our awareness of faint stimuli, created the term absolute threshold