psych 111 - umich hoeffner - EXAM 2

repression

keeping distressing thoughts and feeling buried in the unconscious (type of defense mechanism)

regression

a reversion to immature patterns of behavior (type of defense mechanism)

denial

refusing to accept that a feeling is present of that an event occurred (type of defense mechanism)

projection

attributing ones own thoughts, feelings, or motives to another person (type of defense mechanism)

Rationalization

the creation of false but plausible excuses to justify unacceptable behavior (type of defense mechanism)

displacement

diverting emotional feelings (usually anger) from their original source to a substitute target (type of defense mechanism)

reaction formation

behaving in a way that is exactly the opposite of ones own true feelings (type of defense mechanism)

sublimation

socially unacceptable impulses or idealizations are unconsciously transformed into socially acceptable actions or behavior, possibly resulting in a long-term conversion of the initial impulse (mature and supposed to be the best) (type of defense mechanism)

channel unacceptable impulses into socially acceptable actions

humanistic theories

theories that view personality with a focus on the potential for healthy personal growth

view human nature as positive, Maslow and Rogers

real self

your beliefs and perceptions of what you are really like

ideal self

your beliefs and perceptions of what you would ideally like to be

congruence

accept that the real self is NOT the ideal self, and that is okay

incongruence

he degree of disparity between one's real self and one's ideal self

you're not true to yourself/in touch with your feelings, interference with self-actualization

unconditional positive regard

when affection is given independent of the person's behaviour

conditional positive regard

when affection is dependent or conditional on behaviour, leads to incongruence in child

self-actualization

defined by Maslow as a person's "full use and exploitation of talents, capacities, and potentialities"

personality trait

a durable disposition to behave in a particular way in a variety of situations

consistent patterns of behaviors across times and situations

Five Factor Model of Personality

Extraversion, neuroticism (emotional stability), agreeableness, conscientiousness, openness

OCEAN

openess to experience

how intellectual, imaginative, curious, and broad-minded one is

Conscientiousness

how dependable, responsible, achievement-oriented, and persistent one is

extraversion

dimension of personality referring to one's need to be with other people

agreeableness

how trusting, good-natured, cooperative, and soft-hearted one is

Neuroticism

anxiety, insecurity, emotional instability

consistency of personality traits

traits appear to be stable over time, on average, consistent in different situations

heritability of personality traits

Highest to lowest heritability: opens, extroversion, conscientiousness, neuroticism, agreeableness -- ranges from .61 to .41 correlations

Cognitive-social learning theory

behavior is a product of the interaction of cognitive (thinking), learning, and past experiences; unique to each person

roots in learning (classical and operant conditioning, social-learning theory -- bandura shows modeling people, and cognitive psychology -- self-regulation)

self-efficacy

Bandura, one's sense of competence and effectiveness

believe you will do well > greater effort > success

believe you will do bad > less effort > failure

self-efficacy problems

not taking feedback from the environment around you that you need to change something. not taking this advice is correlated with delusion

internal locus of control

perception that one controls one's own destiny

external locus of control

perception that chance/outside forces determine one's fate (smoke more, less motivated, conform, easier to persuade)

imprinting

the process by which certain animals form attachments during a critical period very early in life

chicks/ducks/geese will ___ on their mother, form an attachment and follow -- special kind of learning, automatic and rapid

Lorenz thought it was first thing chicks see, but Johnson determined that chicks seem to have some innate knowledge of chicken faces (prefer bird head and neck over other objects)

visual preferences in newborns

Infants spend more time looking at patterns than solids, and spend the most time looking at a drawing of a human face

prefer a face that is organized in the correct way than one that isn't -- proves that there is innate knowledge of human face, not just more complex pattern

Mark Johnson's studies of development of face recognition abilities

two components - one innate and one that learns

subcortical system has sketchy knowledge of what face should look like and cortical system can learn about faces; work together -- innate knowledge in subcortical system causes infants to focus on faces, then the cortical system is able to learn a lot about faces

Infants knowledge of physics and math

knowledge of physics - infants look longer at objects that seem to violate physical laws than those that do not -- surprise indicates that their expectations were violated, they must know what is physically plausible for this to occur

knowledge of math - show baby same array many times, show array with an element missing or one added -- surprise indicates that their expectations were violated

Abilities of infants shown in looking time studies

Give infants a choice of looking at two or more things. Measure what he/she looks at longer. Assumption is that infants will look at things find novel or interesting more than old, boring things.

Test for ability to perceive differences as well as for preferences.

piaget

stages of cognitive development, each stage is qualitatively different from others, ages for stage transitions are approximate

assimilation

interpreting one's new experience in terms of one's existing schemas

filtering experience to fit thought -- process by which environment is interpreted in terms of existing cognitive structures (schemas)

accommodation

adapting our current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information

changing though to fit experience -- process by which existing cognitive structure is changed to reflect the environment

sensorimotor stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities, understand the world through senses and motor actions

out of sight out of mind (before object permanence)

object permanence

the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived

now infants can find the object when it is not in their sight

preoperational stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage (from about 2 to 6 or 7 years of age) during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic, ability to think in verbal symbols or words, but lack adult reasoning

key deficit = principle of conservation and thinking is egocentric

egocentrism

in Piaget's theory, the preoperational child's difficulty taking another's point of view -- 3 mountain test

principle of conservation

the knowledge that quantity is unrelated to the arrangement and physical appearance of objects

understanding that an underlying physical dimension remains unchanged despite superficial shifts in its appearance

conservation tasks

Piagetian tasks that involve changing the shape of a substance to see whether children can go beyond the way that substance visually appears to understand that the amount is still the same

conservation of substance - clay balls, different shapes

conservation of number - rearrange row of pennies

concrete operations

Piaget's stage in which children learn such concepts as conservation and mathematical transformations; about 7 - 11 years of age

can do logical operations (sort items by function - more abstract!), understand reversibility, can do conservation and classification tasks

classic inclusion

something can be both (cows and horses -- count the cows, count the horses, now all the animals, more cows or more animals?)

formal operations

One of Piaget's stages; includes the ability to use abstract thinking

can do abstract and hypothetical reasoning, can reason contrary to experience, found only in people's area of expertise, can transcend concrete situations and think about future

attachment

(Harlow) an emotional tie with another person; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to the caregiver and showing distress on separation

Harlow's studies of attachment in monkeys

monkeys preferred the cloth mother over the wire mother, even if wire had bottle --> proves contact important, not just basic needs

without mother, baby monkeys grew to not play with others (instead withdraw and huddle, rock/bite themselves) and as adults they were incompetent at parental/sexual interactions (mothers abuse children)

some, after 6 months deprived, given baby monkey to play with that acted as "therapist", this made better, and separately, mothers better with second child than first

strange situation test

Is the situation set to determine a child's level of insecurity or security to his parents. For this, the child is subjected to unknown settings along with the entrance of an unknown person

separation anxiety

fear reaction when the primary caregiver is absent (mom leaves room), seen across all cultures and corresponds with development of object permanence

stranger anxiety

fear of stranger who walks in room, begins at ~6 months, greatest in unfamiliar settings, also seen in all cultures

secure attachment

parent-infant relationship in which the baby is secure when the parent is present, distressed by separation, and delighted by reunion

insecure attachment

avoidant and resistant

insecure attachment - avoidant

does not care if mother leaves and does not react when she returns

insecure attachment - resistant

baby clings to parent, cries at separation, and reacts with anger when she returns

delay of gratification

the ability to resist the temptation for an immediate reward and wait for a later reward

linked to academic success, physical and psychological health, social skills, patience/will power/self control

marshmallow task

self-imposed waiting for children, asked to wait 7 minutes for more than one marshmallow or eat the one now, measured by times waited

adolescence

the transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty

early maturation in boys

more attractive to girls/adults, taller and stronger, better in sports, happier/more confident --> do better in school

late maturation in boys

less good at sports, teased by peers, self-conscious about size and "manliness"

early maturing girls

initially more self-conscious, receive early sexual advances, ultimately end up shorter and heavier than late maturers -- correlation between early onset puberty and behvaioural problems (more likely to get into trouble)

late maturing girls

popular, sociable, lively, school leaders, positive body image

imaginary audience

strong focus on self leads adolescents to feel that everyone else is focused on them as well

personal fable

adolescents assume their thoughts and feelings are unique (no one ever loved so deeply, etc)

Kohlberg's theory of moral reasoning

moral reasoning requires cognitive sophistication Kohlberg argued adolescence is a rich time for moral development

Presented stories containing moral dilemmas to children, adolescents, and adults. Asked each age group how the dilemmas should be solved: saw big changes in adolescent period

(resolving ethical dilemmas)

Stages of moral development (Kohlberg)

pre-conventional, conventional, post-conventional

pre-conventional level

stage 1 - punishment avoidance is "right" (you could get caught and go to jail)

stage 2 - whatever benefits the individual is right (sort of ego-centric?)

conventional level

stage 3 - behaviour that pleases others is "right" (should not because others will think he is a thief

stage 4 - authorities and rules determines what is "right" (no one can steal, why should he?)

post-conventional level

stage 5 - protecting both society and individual is "right" (laws are basis for a civilized society and they have to be respected)

stage 6 - universal principles determine "right", only 5-10% people (high principle of saving a life outweighs the wrong of stealing)

conflicts between parents and teens

fight about chores, interpersonal relationships, personality characteristics, homework, curfew/bedtime, appearance

kids value parents' advice more than peers on life goals, religion, politics, morality, use of hard drugs, share parents' views concerning personal values, and parental influence is highest where there is a good parent-child relationship

Erikson's stages of psychosocial development

trust vs mistrust

autonomy vs shame and doubt

initiative vs guilt

competence vs inferiority

intimacy vs isolation

generativity vs stagnation

integrity vs despair

effects of aging

senses begin slow decrease in ability, then HUGE drop-off around 70 (sight, smell, hearing), risk of dementia increases in later years

verbal intelligence scores hold steady with age, while non-verbal intelligence scores decline

crystallized intelligence (one's accumulated knowledge and verbal skills) -- tends to increase with age

fluid intelligence (one's ability to reason speedily and abstractly) -- tends to decrease during late adulthood

Galton

English scientist, cousin of Charles Darwin. One of the first people to try to look at intelligence scientifically.

Influenced by ideas of evolution. Wrote a book called Hereditary Genius (1869). Looked at IQ scores in different people. Claims: People do differ in intellect and Intelligence is inherited

Binet

French scientist: given job of determining if children needed "special education". Focused on what tasks a child could solve compared to the average child of that age or to older or younger children. Copying a square: most 4 year olds could do.

But copying a diamond, needed to be six years old

mental age

a measure of intelligence test performance devised by Binet; the chronological age that most typically corresponds to a given level of performance

stanford-binet test

the widely used American revision of Binet's original intelligence test

(Mental age/Chronological Age)*100

So, if they are equal, IQ=100. If, mental age is 6, real (chronological) age is 4, then have 150 IQ, etc.

This test became the standard, many later IQ tests were "validated" by comparison tot his test

IQ

a theoretical construct used by psychologists within standardized tests as a means of describing one's intelligence level

Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS & WISC)

the WAIS is the most widely used intelligence test; contains verbal and performance (nonverbal) subtests

an IQ test designed to measure intelligence and cognitive ability in adults and older adolescents

deviation iq

a statistic obtained by dividing a person's test score by the average test score of people in the same age group and then multiplying the quotient by 100

relative to the expected average for people of the same age

Properties of IQ's (ordinal scale, etc.)

not absolute score, no absolute zero (like height and weight), not ratio scale -- reflects relative performance

ordinal scale - ranking people from lowest to highest (but cannot say IQ of 150 is twice that of 75 or that the difference between 100 and 110 is the same as difference between 110 and 120)

bell curve (normal distribution)

in statistics, refers to the classic curve obtained from plotting the graph of a normal distribution. This curve is characterized by a large, rounded peak above, which tapers off on both sides below, thus, resembling a bell

General intelligence (G)

a general intelligence factor that, according to Spearman and others, underlies specific mental abilities and is therefore measured by every task on an intelligence test

refers to the existence of a brand mental capacity that influences performance on cognitive ability measures

reliability

extent to which a test yields consistent results over time/using alternate forms

most common IQ tests have very high reliability (long term too)

validity

extent to which a test measures what it is supposed to measure

What can we predict about people from their scores on this test?

content validity

the degree to which an analysis gauges a symbolizing example of the topic content or behavior that is being analyzed

predictive validity

an index of how well a test corresponds to a variant which is gauged in the future, at a time following which the test has been given

Reliability and Validity of IQ scores (Scottish data)

Scottish data shows that long-term reliability of IQ tests is pretty good, showed people with higher IQs lived longer

Do IQ scores predict school and job performance?

IQ scores and high SAT scores do predict 1st year grades in college

correlations lower than for academic measures for jobs, but harder professions have higher average IQ

spearman

general intelligence

howard gardner

theory of multiple intelligences

theory of multiple intelligences

Gardner's intelligence theory that proposes that there are eight distinct spheres of intelligence, have different intelligence and you can be really good at one, but really bad at another -- intelligences don't have to hang together

linguistic intelligence, logical-mathematical intelligence, spatial intelligence, musical intelligence, bodily-kinesthetic intelligence, interpersonal intelligence, intrapersonal intelligence

Williams Syndrome

rare genetic disorder that involves mental retardation, distinct physical characteristics, and uniquely expressive language ability

some intellectual skills are relatively good, and others poor -- good at language/music/social skills, poor at numbers/spatial skills

autistic savant

an individual with autism who possesses special skills in areas such as mathematical calculations, memory feats, artistic and musical abilities, or reading, only 10% people with ASD -- poor at language/standard IQ/social skills/practical activities, good at music/visual arts/memory/math calculations/calendar calculations

Modern data on heredity of IQ

Heritability of intelligence (as measured by IQ tests) is fairly high, most experts believe its about 60-75%

Animal intelligence - can the idea of intelligence be applied to other species?

some breeds of dogs smarter, some types of animals smarter, etc