PSYCHOL 1003B Midterm Review

language

system of symbols & rules that can generate an infinite number of meanings

4 properties of language

symbols, structure, meaning & generativity

language is symbolic

sounds, written characters, hand signs & gestures represent objects, events, ideas, actions, etc.

language is structured

rules set in place that determine how symbols can be combined to create meaningful units of communication

syntax

rules for ordering words that define grammatically correct sentences

language conveys meaning

once symbols & their meanings are learned, people can then speaking meaningfully to others

semantics

the meaning of sentences depending on the word order

language is generative

meaning symbols can be combined an infinite number of ways to generate an infinite number off messages & meanings

displacement

ability of language that allows us to communicate about events & objects that are not physically present

surface structure

symbols used & their order

deep surface

underlying meaning of combined symbols

surface & deep structure connection

surface structure influences its deep structure. Sometimes a single surface structure yields multiple deep structures. Or multiple surface structures have the same deep structure.

the hierarchical structure of language

phoneme→morpheme→words→phrase→sentence→discourse

phoneme

smallest unit of speech: vowel & constant sounds as well as letter combinations like “th” & “sh”. Can be combined with other elements but have no meaning on their own

morpheme

smallest units of meaning: includes base words, prefixes, suffixes, & the plural ‘s’

distinction between words & morphemes

a word can be broken down into one or more morphemes but a morpheme cannot be broken down any further

discourse

ability to combine sentences into paragraphs, articles, other textual works

bottom up processing in language

analyzing or recognizing individual elements to integrate larger connections into perceptions & meaning

top down processing in language

interpreting information based on existing knowledge. Language aspect: we draw words & rules from our existing knowledge of grammar & vocabulary

pragmatics

how social context contributes to the meaning of words. eg. “do you have the time?”

broca’s area

word production & articulation. The thicker the cortex, better the grammar learning aptitude

wernicke’s area

speech comprehension. The thicker the cortex, the greater the comprehension

aphasia

damage to one or more language areas in the brain that cause impairment in speech comprehension and/or production (can be either temporary or permanent)

BF skinner

suggests that language development is strongly influenced by their parents positive reinforcement for correct language & non reinforcement or correction for inappropriate use of language

language acquisition support system (LASS)

factors in the social environment that facilitate the learning of language

language development : 1-3 months

infant recognizes sounds and begins to prefer speech sounds

language development : 4-6 months

babbling begins in response to others

language development : 7-11 months

infant starts to ignore phonemes not used in dominant language. Tongue starts to move with vocalizations

language development : 12 months

first words to name familiar people & objects

language development : 12-18 months

starts to use single words to express full phrases

language development : 18-24 months

use of two word combinations

language development : 2-4 years

rapid expanding vocabulary. Child begins to express concepts with sentences (although, usually with poor grammar)

language development : 4-5 years

basic grammar rules have been acquired

the whorfian hypothesis

“peoples language determines how they perceive & think about their world”

is the whorfian hypothesis accurate?

not completely; language does influence our perceptions but does not determine it. For example, we can use gender neutral language to minimize unconscious biases.

modes of thought

propositional thought, imaginal thought, & motoric thought

propositional thought

verbal sentences we say or hear in our minds (the inner voice)

imaginal thoughts

mental images & scenes that involve sensory experience. Picturing something we can see, touch, hear, etc.

motoric thought

mental representations of movements

propositions

statements that express ideas & consist of concepts

concepts

mental categories we use to group similar objects, people & events

prototype

most typical thing to represent a concept. When we are determining whether something fits in an existing concept, we compare it to this.

deductive reasoning

start with general principles→ then apply them to a specific situation

inductive reasoning

starting with specific observations→ form general conclusion

stages of problem solving (4)

understand problem→generate hypothesis or solutions→test solutions→evaluate results & revise

algorithms

formulas or procedures that generate correct solutions every time

heuristics

general problem solving strategies we apply to certain situations

heuristic type: means ends analysis

determining differences between present situation & desired state, then making changes that reduce the differences

heuristic type: sub goal analysis

formulating steps to reach goal

representative heuristic

a guide we use to estimate whether something belongs in a certain category based on how much it represents the categories prototype

the availability heuristic

a guideline used to make likelihood judgements based on how easily examples come to mind

availability heuristic example

what’s more likely, death by shark attack or falling airplane parts? -you pull images available in your memory

divergent thinking

ability to generate new ideas that are different from the norm

functional fixedness

tendency to be fixed in their perception of an objects function. eg. plyers vs weight to create a pendulum

incubation

when the solution suddenly pops into our minds. The “lightbulb” moment

schema

mental framework that helps organize & interpret information

type of schema: script

an assumed sequence of events that we don’t even have to think about. eg. driving a car means starting the car, buckling seat belt, etc.

metacognition

a person’s awareness & understanding of their own cognitive abilities

metacomprehension

how well someone can judge whether or not they know something

negative set

tendency to solve problems a particular ways, even when a different approach may be better

francis galton

first to study intelligence. Believed intelligence was hereditary & tried to measure it using physical traits like reaction time, etc.

Alfred Binet

introduced concept of “mental age”. Believed that mental abilities develop with age but at a constant rate. For use in school settings to create a list of skills kids should be able to do

William stern

introduced idea of intelligence quotient (IQ) using mental age. IQ=(mental age / chronological age) x100

Lewis Terman

revised Binet’s test for American use with high importance placed on verbal abilities. He creating Stanford-Binet intelligence scale used with the military & schools

David Wechsler

created Wechsler adult intelligence scales (WAIS) & tests for children (WISC) that included both verbal & nonverbal components

intelligence

ability to acquire knowledge, think & reason effectively & adapt with the environment

factor analysis

the grouping of similar skills which identify clusters of behaviour that are highly correlated with each other

factor analysis example

people we do well in math also do well in problem solving- they might have a “logical/mathmatical reasoning” factor

Charles Spearman

questioned if intelligence was reflected in one ability or many. He developed the g factor

g factor

general intelligence. (more telling of job success than actual skills)

LL Thurstone

argued that mental ability depends less on g factor & more on the 7 distinct abilities

7 distinct abilities (primary mental abilities)

spacial reasoning, verbal comprehension, word fluency, number facility, number facility, perceptual speed, rote memory, reasoning

cattell & horn

created the subtypes of the g factor: crystallized & fluid intelligence

crystallized intelligence

ability to apply previously learned knowledge to current problems. Use of long term memory, personal experiences

fluid intelligence

ability to deal with novel problems without any previous knowledge. *inductive reasoning, thinking logically, attention & short term memory

Robert Sternberg

created triarchic theory of intelligence

triarchic theory of intelligence

contains types of intellectual competence (analytical, practical, creative) that are interconnected with the underlying cognitive processes (meta components, performance components, & knowledge acquisition components)

meta components (triarchic theory)

processes used to plan & regulate task performance. Including skills such as identifying problem, formulate hypothesis, come up with strategies & how to test them

performance components (triarchic theory)

actual mental processes we undergo during the task at hand. This includes processing sensory information, retrieving appropriate memories & schemas from long term memory

knowledge acquisition components (triarchic theory)

ability to combine new information with previous knowledge. Involves the storage of information. This allows us to learn from our experiences

analytical (componential)

academic & problem solving skills

practical (contextual)

skills needed to meet everyday demands

creative (experimental)

mental skills required to adapt & deal with new problems

branches of emotional intelligence

perceiving emotions, using emotions to facilitate thought (how to use emotions in certain situations), understanding emotions, & managing emotions

Flynn effect

notable rise in intelligence test (maybe due to better living environments, schooling, etc.)

dynamic testing

testing followed by feedback & suggestions from administer

Wechsler intelligence scales (adult & child)

verbal & nonverbal components. Tests included series of subsets that fall into four index scales: verbal comprehension, perceptiual reasoning, working memory, & processing speed

verbal comprehension index scale

vocabulary, information used in general knowledge questions, & determining similarities between random things

perceptual reasoning index scale

block design (match image sample with blocks), matrix reasoning (identify patterns & predict next series), visual puzzles

working memory index scale

digit span (repeating sequences of numbers forward & backward), arithmetic (word problems)

processing speed index scale

symbol search, coding (copying symbols & corresponding numbers)

reliability

consistency of measurement

validity

how well a test actually measures what it is designed to measure

standardisation

same conditions for each test & comparison to a norm group

“theory of successful intelligence” - Robert Sternberg

intelligence is whatever is required to meet adaptive means of a given culture

cross cultural intelligence assessments

are hard to test as cultures define ‘smart’ differently

raven test

used in cross cultural intelligence testing in which you detect image relationships & determine the missing entry (measure of fluid intelligence)

neuroscience of intelligence

lower brain glucose=less energy used to think (meaning higher intelligence is defined by the brain working more effectively, expending less energy) greater neuroplasticity=higher intellect

intelligence & heredity

the more genes the people have in common, the more similar the IQ. heritability coefficients range from 0.5-0.7

intelligence & environment

accounts for 30-50% of IQ variation among people