ITPC2

nervous system

network of cells that carries information to and from all parts of the body.

neuroscience

branch of the life sciences that deals with the structure and functioning of the brain and the neurons, nerves, and nervous tissue that form the nervous system.

biological psychology or behavioral neuroscience

is the branch of neuroscience that focuses on the biological bases of psychological processes, behavior, and learning, and it is the primary area associated with the biological perspective in psychology.

Santiago Ramon Y Cajal

the year 1887, doctor studying slides of brain tissues theorized that the nervous system was made up of cells.

neuron

is the specialized cell in the nervous system that receives and sends messages within that system.

are one of the messengers of the body, and that means that they have a very special structure

dendrites

The parts of the neuron that receive messages from other cells are called

means “tree-like,” or “branch,” and this structure does indeed look like the branches of a tree.

soma

which is the part of the cell that contains the nucleus and keeps the entire cell alive and functioning

means “body.”

axon

(from the Greek for “axis”) is a fiber attached to the soma, and its job is to carry messages out to other cells.

tubelike structure of the neuron that carries out neural messages from cell body to axon terminal

axon terminals

presynaptic terminals

terminal buttons

synaptic knobs

the axon branches out into several shorter fibers that have swellings or little knobs on the ends called

which are responsible for communicating with other nerve cells.

enlarged ends of axonal branches of the neuron, specialized for communication between cells

glia / glial cells

Neurons make up a large part of the brain, but they are not the only cells that affect our thinking, learning, memory, perception, and all of the other facets of life that make us who we are. The other primary cells are called

they help maintain a state of homeostasis, or sense of balance in the nervous system, they are increasingly being better understood as partner cells, not just support cells

also play important roles in learning, behavior, and neuroplasticity by affecting synaptic connectivity and facilitating communication between neurons in specific neural networks

cells that provide support for the neurons to grow on and around, deliver nutrients to neurons, produce myelin to coat axons, clean up waste products and dead neurons, influence information processing, and, during prenatal development, influence the generation of new neurons

oligodendrocytes and Schwann cells

two special type of glial cells

myelin

oligodedrocytes and Schwann cells produce fatty substances called _________. It is produced by certain glial cells that coat the axons of neurons to insulate, protect, and speed up the neural impulse

oligodendrocytes

produce myelin for the neurons in the brain and spinal cord (the central nervous system)

Schwann cells

produce myelin for the neurons of the body (the peripheral nervous system).

Central Nervous System

the nervous system being affected by Oligodendrocytes by means of producing myelin for it.

Peripheral Nervous System

the nervous system being affected by Schwann cells by means of producing myelin for it.

tracts, nerves

Myelin wraps around the shaft of the axons, forming an insulating and protective sheath. Bundles of myelin-coated axons travel together as “cables” in the central nervous system called _____, and in the peripheral nervous system bundles of axons are called _____.

nodes

The places where the myelin seems to bump are actually small spaces on the axon called ______ which are not covered in myelin.

multiple sclerosis

the myelin sheath is destroyed (possibly by the individual’s own immune system), which leads to diminished or complete loss of neural functioning in those damaged cells.

True

True or False. A neuron that’s at rest—not currently firing a neural impulse or message—is actually electrically charged.

ions

charged particles inside and outside the cell.

diffusion

negative charge inside the cell and positive charge outside the cell (NIPO) due to

the process of ions moving from areas of high concentration to areas of low concentration,

electrostatic pressure

the relative balance of electrical charges when the ions are at rest.

False

T or F: The cell membrane is not semipermeable (meaning that some molecules may freely pass through the membrane while others cannot).

channels

tiny protein openings that ions used to go inside or outside the cell

resting potential

the state of the neuron when not firing a neural impulse

action potential

the release of the neural impulse, consisting of a reversal of the electrical charge within the axon

all-or-none

referring to the fact that a neuron either fires completely or does not fire at all.

synaptic vesicles

little sac-like structures at the pre-synaptic terminal

vesicle

is Latin and means a “little blister” or “fluid-filled sac.”

neurotransmitters

Inside the synaptic vesicles are chemicals suspended in fluid, which are molecules of substances called

The name is simple enough—they are inside a neuron and they are going to transmit a message

synapse or synaptic gap

between the axon terminal and another dendrite is a fluid-filled space called

receptor sites

proteins that allow only particular molecules of a certain shape to fit into it, just as only a particular key will fit into a keyhole.

excitatory synapse

synapse at which a neurotransmitter causes the receiving cell to fire.

inhibitory synapse

synapse at which a neurotransmitter causes the receiving cell to stop firing.

acetylcholine (ACh)

first neurotransmitter to be identified. It is found at the synapses between neurons and muscle cells. It contracts skeletal muscles, yet slows down contractions in the heart muscle.

excitatory or inhibitory: arousal, attention, memory, and controls muscle contractions

norepinephrine (NE)

Mainly excitatory; involved in arousal and mood

antagonists

chemical substances that block or reduce a cell’s response to the action of other chemicals or neurotransmitters (curare)

agonists

chemical substances that mimic or enhance the effects of a neurotransmitter on the receptor sites of the next cell, increasing or decreasing the activity of that cell (black widow spider)

hippocampus

an area of the brain that is responsible for forming new memories, and low levels of ACh have been associated with Alzheimer’s disease, the most common type of dementia

Dopamine (DA)

is a neurotransmitter found in the brain, and like some of the other neurotransmitters, it can have different effects depending on the exact location of its activity.

Little amount of this = Parkinson’s Disease

Too much of this = Schizophrenia

Excitatory or inhibitory; involved in control of movement and sensations of pleasure

Serotonin (5-HT)

is a neurotransmitter originating in the lower part of the brain that can have either an excitatory or inhibitory effect, depending on the particular synapses being affected.

It is associated with sleep, mood, anxiety, and appetite. For example, low levels of this activity have been linked to depression.

Excitatory or inhibitory; involved in sleep, mood, anxiety, and appetite

glutamate

the nervous system’s major excitatory neurotransmitter

plays an important role in learning and memory and may also be involved in the development of the nervous system and in synaptic plasticity (the ability of the brain to change connections among its neurons).

Major excitatory neurotransmitter; involved in learning, memory formation, nervous system development, and synaptic plasticity

gamma-aminobutyric acid or GABA

is the most common neurotransmitter producing inhibition in the brain.

can help calm anxiety, by binding to the same receptor sites that are affected by tranquilizing drugs and alcohol. In fact, the effect of alcohol is to enhance the effect of GABA, which causes the general inhibition of the nervous system associated with getting drunk.

Alcohol is an agonist of GABA.

Major inhibitory neurotransmitter; involved in sleep and inhibits movement

neuropeptides

group of substances known as ______ can serve as neurotransmitters or hormones or influence the action of other neurotransmitters.

endorphins

pain-controlling chemicals in the body

Inhibitory neural regulators; involved in pain relief

reuptake

most neurotransmitters will end up back in the presynaptic neuron to be repackaged into the synaptic vesicles in a process called

enzymatic degradation

There is one neurotransmitter that is not taken back into the vesicles, however. Because ACh is responsible for muscle activity, and muscle activity needs to happen rapidly and continue happening, it’s not possible to wait around for the “sucking up” process to occur. Instead, an enzyme\* specifically designed to break apart ACh clears the synaptic gap very quickly

central nervous system (CNS)

part of the nervous system consisting of the brain and spinal cord. Both the brain and the spinal cord are composed of neurons and glial cell life-sustainings that control the life-sustaining functions of the body as well as all thought, emotion, and behavior

BRAIN

core of the nervous system, the part that makes sense of the information received from the senses, makes decisions, and sends commands out to the muscles and the rest of the body, if needed.

responsible for cognition and thoughts, including learning, memory, and language.

SPINAL CORD

is a long bundle of neurons that serves two vital functions for the nervous system.

a long bundle of neurons that carries messages between the body and the brain and is responsible for very fast, lifesaving reflexes

White and Myelinated Axons

color of the outer section of the spinal cord and what it is made of?

Gray and Cell Bodies

color of the inner section of the spinal cord and what it is made of?

Outer Section of the Spinal Cord

section of the spinal cord whose function is to carry messages from the body up to the brain and from the brain down to the body. It is simply a message “pipeline.”

Inner Section of the Spinal Cord

section of the spinal cord which is made up of cell bodies separated by glial cells, is actually a primitive sort of “brain.” This part of the spinal cord is responsible for certain reflexes— very fast, lifesaving reflexes

afferent (sensory) neurons

neurons that carry messages from the senses to the spinal cord (CNS)

efferent (motor) neurons

NeurOns that carry messages from the spinal cord (CNS) to the muscles and glands,

interneurons

connect the afferent neurons to the efferent neurons (and make up the inside of the spinal cord and much of the brain itself).

reflex

an involuntary response, one that is not under personal control or choice.

neuroplasticity

the ability to constantly change both the structure and function of many cells in the brain in response to trauma or experience

neurogenesis

the formation of new neurons, and an important process during the development of our nervous system.

hippocampus and olfactory bulb

the places where neurons still generate even if mammals enter adulthood

hippocampus and striatum

an important area of the brain related to motor control, voluntary movement, and other functions.

human adult neurogenesis happen in here

stem cells

special cells found in all the tissues of the body that are capable of becoming other cell types when those cells need to be replaced due to damage or wear and tear

epigenetics

or the interaction between genes and environmental factors that influence gene activity. Such factors include our physical environment, nutritional status, and life experiences.

peripheral nervous system

all nerves and neurons that are not contained in the brain and spinal cord but that run through the body itself.

somatic nervous system

which consists of nerves that control the voluntary muscles of the body

division of the PNS consisting of nerves that carry information from the senses to the CNS and from the CNS to the voluntary muscles of the body.

autonomic nervous system

which consists of nerves that control the involuntary muscles, organs, and glands

division of the PNS consisting of nerves that control all of the involuntary muscles, organs, and glands.

functions of this system are more or less automatic

sensory pathway

which comprises all the nerves carrying messages from the senses to the central nervous system (those nerves containing afferent neurons),

motor pathway

which is all of the nerves carrying messages from the central nervous system to the voluntary, or skeletal,\* muscles of the body—muscles that allow people to move their bodies (those nerves composed of efferent neurons)

sympathetic division

of the autonomic nervous system is primarily located on the middle of the spinal column—running from near the top of the ribcage to the waist area

part of the ANS that is responsible for reacting to stressful events and bodily arousal; “fight-or-flight system.”

parasympathetic division

might be called the “eat-drink-and-rest” system

part of the ANS that restores the body to normal functioning after arousal and is responsible for the day-to-day functioning of the organs and glands; “eat-drink-and-rest system.

endocrine glands

glands that secrete chemicals called hormones directly into the bloodstream

hormones

chemicals released into the bloodstream by endocrine glands

pituitary gland

is located under the brain, just below the hypothalamus - controls the glandular system by influencing the pituitary. That is because the pituitary gland is the master gland, the one that controls or influences all of the other endocrine glands

gland located in the brain that secretes human growth hormone and influences all other hormonesecreting glands (also known as the master gland).

oxytocin

The hormone that controls aspects of pregnancy is called

it is involved in a variety of ways with both reproduction and parental behavior. It stimulates contractions of the uterus in childbirth. The word itself comes from the Greek word oxys, meaning “rapid,” and tokos, meaning “childbirth,” and injections of oxytocin are frequently used to induce or speed up labor and delivery.

It is also responsible for the milk letdown reflex, which involves contraction of the mammary gland cells to release milk for the nursing infant.

vasopressin

The hormone that controls levels of water in our body is ______ and it essentially acts as an antidiuretic, helping the body to conserve water.

pineal gland

is located in the brain, near the back, directly above the brain stem. It plays an important role in several biological rhythms. The pineal gland secretes a hormone called melatonin, which helps track day length (and seasons). In some animals, this influences seasonal behaviors such as breeding and molting. In humans, melatonin levels are more influential in regulating the sleep–wake cycle

thyroid gland

s located inside the neck and secretes hormones that regulate growth and metabolism. One of these, a hormone called thyroxin, regulates metabolism (how fast the body burns its available energy). As related to growth, the thyroid plays a crucial role in body and brain development

pancreas

controls the level of blood sugar in the body by secreting insulin and glucagon. If the pancreas secretes too little insulin, it results in diabetes. If it secretes too much insulin, it results in hypoglycemia, or low blood sugar, which causes a person to feel hungry all the time and often become overweight as a result.

gonads

are the sex glands, including the ovaries in the female and the testes in the male. They secrete hormones that regulate sexual behavior and reproduction. They do not control all sexual behavior, though. In a very real sense, the brain itself is the master of the sexual system—human sexual behavior is not controlled totally by instincts and the actions of the glands as in some parts of the animal world, but it is also affected by psychological factors such as attractiveness.

adrenal glands

The origin of the name is simple enough; renal comes from a Latin word meaning “kidney” and ad is Latin for “to,” so adrenal means “to or on the kidney.” Each adrenal gland is actually divided into two sections, the adrenal medulla and the adrenal cortex.

adrenal medulla

releases epinephrine and norepinephrine when people are under stress and aids in sympathetic arousal

adrenal cortex

produces more than 30 different hormones called corticoids (also called steroids) that regulate salt intake, help initiate\* and control stress reactions, and also provide a source of sex hormones in addition to those provided by the gonads.

cortisol

released when the body experiences stress, both physical stress (such as illness, surgery, or extreme heat or cold) and psychological stress (such as an emotional upset).

important in the release of glucose into the bloodstream during stress, providing energy for the brain itself, and the release of fatty acids from the fat cells that provide the muscles with energy

lesioning

In such an experiment, once the test animal is anesthetized and given medication for pain, an electrode, which is a thin wire or probe insulated everywhere but at its tip, is surgically inserted into the brain. An electrical current strong enough to kill off the target neurons is sent through the tip of the wire. This procedure is called

BRAIN STIMULATION

In contrast to lesioning, a less harmful way to study the brain is to temporarily disrupt or enhance the normal functioning of specific brain areas through electrical stimulation and then study the resulting changes in behavior or cognition.

electrical stimulation of the brain, or ESB.

The procedure of stimulating a specific area of the brain is much the same as in lesioning, but the much milder current in this research does no damage to the neurons. It does cause the neurons to react as if they had received a message. This is ________.

deep brain stimulation

type of ESB has been shown to be very helpful in some disorders in humans. In this procedure, neurosurgeons place electrodes in specific deep-brain areas and then route the electrode wires to a pacemaker-like device called an impulse generator that is surgically implanted in the collarbone.

DBS has been widely used as a treatment for Parkinson’s disease and may play an important role in the treatment of seizure disorder, chronic pain, and possibly some psychiatric disorders (Fisher et al., 2010; Rabins et al., 2009; Weaver et al., 2009), among other areas

optogenetics

where neurons can be activated by light rather than electricity

transcranial magnetic stimulation

magnetic pulses are applied to the cortex using special copper wire coils that are positioned over the head. The resulting magnetic fields stimulate neurons in the targeted area of the cortex.

repetitive TMS

Longer-lasting stimulation results when the pulses are administered in a repetitive fashion

transcranial direct current stimulation

uses scalp electrodes to pass very low-amplitude direct current to the brain to change the excitability of cortical neurons directly below the electrodes

CT scan (computed tomography)

involves mapping “slices” of the brain by computer)

It can show stroke damage, tumors, injuries, and abnormal brain structure. (See Figure 2.10a.) A -- ---- is also the structural imaging method of choice when there is metal in the body (e.g., a bullet or surgical clips) and is useful for imaging possible skull fractures

brain-imaging method using computer-controlled X-rays of the brain.

magnetic resonance imaging, or MRI

provides much more detail (see Figure 2.10c and Figure 2.10d), even allowing doctors to see the effects of very small strokes. The person getting an ______ scan is placed inside a machine that generates a powerful magnetic field to align hydrogen atoms in the brain tissues (these normally spin in a random fashion); then radio pulses are used to make the atoms spin at a particular frequency and direction. The time it takes for the atoms to return to their normal spin allows a computer to create a three-dimensional image of the brain and display “slices” of that image on a screen

brain-imaging method using radio waves and magnetic fields of the body to produce detailed images of the brain

MRI spectroscopy

allows researchers to estimate the concentration of specific chemicals and neurotransmitters in the brain.

DTI, or diffusion tensor imaging.

. The brain has two distinct color regions, gray matter, the outer areas consisting largely of neurons with unmyelinated axons, and white matter, the fiber tracts consisting of myelinated axons (the myelin is responsible for the lighter color). ________ uses MRI technology to provide a way to measure connectivity in the brain by imaging these white matter tracts.

electroencephalograph.

A fairly harmless way to study the activity of the living brain is to record the electrical activity of the cortex just below the skull using a device called an

electroencephalogram (EEG)

recording in humans was accomplished in 1924 by Hans Berger (Niedermeyer, 2005). Recording the _______ involves using small metal disks or sponge-like electrodes placed directly on the scalp and a special solution to help conduct the electrical signals from the cortex just below.

alpha waves

in the back of the brain are one indication of relaxed wakefulness