apartheid

when did apartheid become official government policy

1948

what was the wind of change

• many African nations began to go through the policy of decolonisation

• majority of African nations achieved their independence in the 1950s and 1960s

impact of african nationalism on South Africa

• direct challenge to the white minority government, and deemed decolonisation as a betrayal of the ‘white man’

• left it completely isolated

what did Eric Louw (South African foreign minister) predict

in 1960 he believed that white rule would soon be confined to Portugese territories, Rhodesia and South Africa

what was the wind of change speech and who was it given by

• in 1960, British PM MacMillan toured Africa and observed the growing strength of African nationalism

• made it clear in his speech that racial segregation was ending, and should end

political issues in South Africa

• most citizens could not vote (only whites)

• South Africa was isolated in its policies due to the winds of change

• European withdrawal in South Africa posed an issue for the white minority, making them want to tighten policy

economic issues in South Africa

• income disparity

• majority of the population did not get to enjoy the advantages of the rich variety of minerals South Africa had

• blacks and coloureds struggled to provide for themselves and their families on such low wages

• educational differences led to different employment prospects

income disparity in South Africa

• average income of the coloureds was 20% of the whites

• average income of blacks was 10% of the whites

social issues in South Africa

• mixed race relationships were illegal

• quality of life was poor in bantustans

• passbooks reinforced racial segregation and dehumanised blacks

• disrupted family structures

demographic issues in South Africa

• coloured people made up a large amount of population compared to white people

• all citizens were characterised by race and fell into racial classifications

• white community was divided between Afrikaaners and descendants from English settlers

• Zulu community was culturally different to Indigenous black communities

what was the ideology of apartheid

• arose from the fact that Afrikaaner nationalists believed the only way for all races to live peacefully together was for them to live seperately

• white minority wanted control

• scientific racism

what was the policy of apartheid

• creators of it believed a designated homeland should be carved out from the land and be awarded to each of the black races

• each black citizen would have to make their permanent home in their designated homeland

what were the two reigons set aside for Xhosa people

Transkei and Ciskei

what limitations were felt by the Xhosa people

their reigons were proclaimed independent, so many were denied South African citizenship and were forcibly removed

what was the Tomlinson report

• Tomlinson advised the government that seperation of races could work if the government was willing to finance it

• recommended that homelands be set up in several areas and should remain seperated from white communities

• factories should be constructed on borders, and there would eventually be sufficient jobs near the Bantustans so they would not need to come into white areas at all

what was the homeland system

• relocation of black Africans to impoverished and rural areas

• meant that they were no longer South African citizens and were forced to work in the country as foreign migrants

stats about the homeland system

• 13% of the country was divided into 10 homelands

• 70-80% of the population lived in these homelands

what did the Tomlinson report fail to consider

• area set aside for black homelands was not sufficient in size or quality to sustain the blacks who were supposed to live there

• government refusal to spend money to improve the work on bantustans

• lived in terrible poverty

what were pass raids

• conducted by police reguarly

• if a persons passbook was not in order or if they didn’t have one, they were sent back to native homeland

effect of pass raids

they happened so often that most Africans had been arrested for a pass law offence, and had an affect of turning the majority of the African population into criminals

what was the Population Registration Act (1952)

• a central population register where all persons would be classified as whites, coloureds, asians or blacks

• mixed marriages over time made this complicated as often members of one family would be classified as another race

the Abolition of Passes Act (1952)

• enforced pass books or refrence books

• required all men living in white areas to carry a pass book containing personal details

the Group Areas Act (1950)

provided for a particular area to be proclaimed as an area for a particular racial group

the Seperate Amenitites Act (1953)

marked out all the public places and services with signs such as ‘Europeans only’, black and coloured public services were always inferior

the Prohibition of Mixed Marriages Act (1949)

prohibited marriages between whites and members of other races

the Immorality Amendment Act (1950)

forbade sexual relations between whites and members of other races. to enforce this, police raided houses and broke into bedrooms to photograph couples breaking the law

the Bantu education act (1953)

black students were forced to undertake courses seperately to white students, and trained as domestic servants for white masters. Subjects were taught in Afrikaans.

the Native Labour (settlement of disputes) Act 1953

prohibited registered trade unions from accepting black workers as members and forbade black workers from going on strike

racial dynamics

• when white people interacted with black people it was in the context of ‘master-servant’

• commonly an elderly black man would refer to any white child as ‘baas’ or ‘master’ and all black men were known was boys

what did passbooks include

fingerprints, photograph, name of employer, address, how long they have been employed

what were townships

set up far from white areas to prevent white suburbs from being swamped, but still needed black labour. they were crowded and suffered from a lack of decent facilities. allowed blacks to live within the bantustans and travel to work each day

example of a township

Soweto, outside of Johannesburg

townships for women

• apartheid laws forbade women to travel to cities and towns by denying them passes

• however some moved to join their husbands in the cities and lived in constant fear

• officials sometimes held a crackdown, but most came back anyways

what were shanty towns

appeared on the outskirts of many towns and cities to house the black families who defied the pass laws

example of destroying black townships

Sophiatown in the 1960s: Africans were piled into trucks and driven away, and was reoccupied by white Afrikaaners who named it Triomf

impact on black family life

• the ‘migrant worker’ labour policy was entrenched in the apartheid system as it meant black men had their lives seperated into two parts (family and worker)

• families were divided, children did not have the benefit of their fathers

• men resorted to prostitutes while away from their wives

• no sense of family was developed

• farming became the responsibility of women

what change occured for migrant workers 1968 onwards

• previously they could take an extended leave from their jobs to spend time with families, but this rule changed

• a migrant worker had to re-register for their job within 28 years of leaving it or someone else was given it

• meant they only saw their families two weeks out of every year

effect of increase in business during the 1960s and 1970s

• South Africa’s white urban community began to enjoy a high standard of living

• black African wages lowered

• urban African factory workers were often earning only about 20% of their white co-workers

• bottom 40% of the population earning 6% of the national income

infant mortality for black africans

• was thirteen times that of whites

• 25% of African and coloured children died before their first birthday

housing stats for black Africans

• In Praetoria between 1967 and 1976, not a single house was built for African families

• a typical four room house in Soweto could have 14 or more people living in it

culture in rural communities

retention of the system of chiefs became symbolic, as the chiefs had little power and ended up being civil servants for the white government

living conditions in rural communities

• very poor

• rise of diseases

• malnutrition

• mental health was poor and serious social problems were common amongst many families

malnutrition in rural communities

• in 1981 over 50,000 children died of malnutrition

• over 100,000 were at risk of death in the bantustans

statistic about forced removals

more than 3.5 million blacks have been forcibly removed since 1960, for many more than once

what forms did forced removal take

• rural tenants being evicted from white owned farms

• blacks living in unauthorised areas risked being removed and punished

nature of the homelands

• in the Qwaqwa homeland, the density was 298 per square kilometre

• agricultural cultivation became close to impossible under such crowded conditions

• always isolated

tactics of the ANC

• originally pursued entirely peaceful forms of protest

• when the Youth League was created, a major rift had developed between the older and younger members of the ANC

• younger members wanted to adopt more militant approaches

how was the ANC formed

• created in 1912 as the South African Native National Congress but did not represent the majority of black Africans in the earliest period of protest

• since its inception has dominated the leadership of the resistance movement

• began to built up a mass membership following WWII

who dominated the Youth League of the ANC

Nelson Mandela

what was program of action

the aim of the youth league, which was to encourage mass protests, boycotts of white services and passive resistance against apartheid laws

what was the defiance campaign

• aim was to deliberately but politely break apartheid laws such as curfews and pass laws

• wanted to get arrested and flood the country’s prison systems to draw public attention

why was the defiance campaign called off

police responded with extreme violence, especially in the Eastern Cape

what were the responses of the white government to the ANC

• the Suppression of Communism act (1950) made the communist party illegal and gave the government power to declare any similar organisation illegal

• the Public Safety Act (1953) enabled the government to declare a state of emergency if it believed public order was threatened

• banning orders were also placed on political activists

who did the congress alliance consist of

the ANC, the South African Council of Trade Unions, the South Afrian Indians congress and the Coloured peoples association

what did the Congress Alliance do in 1955

members traveled the country collecting the demands of all ordinary Africans for a ‘just and free society’. Demands were compiled into the freedom charter

what was the freedom charter

statement of the Congress Alliance’s principles and political aims. important as it mobilised people over a lengthy period and helped to revive the ANC

white government response to the Freedom Charter

regarded it as a treasonable document and claimed the congress alliance was planning to overthrow the state, treason trial occured

what was treason trial

• 156 members of the congress alliance were arrested and charged with treason

• lasted from 1956 to 1961 but the government failed to prove that the treason had been intended

• image shot by Eli Weinburg

what was Umkhonto we Sizwe

• ‘spear of the nation’

• carried out acts of sabotage against key infrastructure in South Africa

when was the ANC banned

1960

effect of the banning of the ANC

• operated in exile

• made appeals to international bodies and governments to put pressure on the white government to dismantle the apartheid system

how did the PAC begin

in 1959, a splinter group within the ANC broke away from it and formed a new organisation

difference between PAC and ANC

• ANC was non racial democratic freedom for all races, whereas the PAC was pro African and arguably anti white.

• PAC was mostly opposed to the congress alliance

• did not believe in the inclusion of other racial groups and the affiliation with the communist party

what was Poqo

the PAC’s underground military unit, far more militant than the ANC as it was not opposed to the taking of human life

location of Sharpeville

a black township situated 50kms southwest of Johannesburg

when was Sharpeville

21st March 1960

what happened at Sharpeville

PAC organised a protest against the pass laws, where large numbers of people would march to the police station without their pass books to admit they brome the law. The theory was that the police could not lock up every black person

how many protestors converged at Sharpeville

over 5000

what did police do in response to the protest at Sharpeville

• police claim the blacks were brandishing weapons and threatening the police

• police lined up and were ordered to load their guns

• started shooting into the crowd, lasting about 20-30 seconds

• 69 were killed and 180 were wounded

what happened at Langa

• at the same time as Sharpeville, the PAC was demonstrating and 20,000 people gathered

• police ordered them to disperse and when they didn’t, the police charged the crowd, who threw stones at them

• police then fired into the crowd killing 2 and wounding 49

significance of Sharpeville and Langa

international opinion began to turn against the South African government

government responses to Sharpeville and Langa

• Verwoerd government declared a state of emergency

• 18,000 demonstraters were arrested

• confirmed the necessity of even harsher implementation of apartheid

• ANC and PAC were banned

ANC and PAC responses to Sharpeville and Langa

• forced to go underground

• established military wings (umkhonto we sizwe and poqo)

• Mandela argued that his people were left with no alternative to a violent struggle

• confirmed that the white government could not go down without a fight

international impact of Sharpeville and Langa

• UN passed a resolution expressing anger at the government, offered sympathy to the families and called upon the governent to end apartheid

• South Africa began to experience growing international isolation

• recieved international condemnation

economic impact of Sharpeville and Langa

• many foreign investors withdrew their funds

• dramatic drop in the level of white immigration

• still remained okay, rate of return was very good

• experiencing an economic boom

symbolic significance of Sharpeville and Langa

• Mandela signed the consitution in 1996 and opened the Sharpeville memorial

• 21st march as human rights day

when did Mandela join the ANC

• was quickly becoming politically involved by the early 1940s and joined along with Sisulu

• soon proposed the creation of an ANC Youth League and called for more forceful protests

Mandela’s work in the ANC

• created the Youth League

• held other leadership positions through which he helped revitalise the organisation and oppose apartheid policies

• in the late 1940s he helped launch the defiance program

• in 1955 he was involved in the drafting of the freedom charter

what did Mandela do when underground in 1961

• formed Umkhonto we Sizwe which became the military arm of the ANC and sought to organise sabotage and resistence to the apartheid regime

• early actions were aimed at targets such as power stations and government offices

why did Mandela have to go underground

he was banned in 1952 and severly restricted in travel, association and speech

what was the MK use of sabotage

• commenced in december 1961

• initial aim was to show that there was a clear break with the previous 50 years of nonviolent protest

• electricity pylons and pass ofices were targeted and attacks were carried out at night to avoid injuring people

• other attacks were against power stations and other strategic government buildings and symbols of apartheid

what training did Mandela undergo

• guerilla training in Ethiopia and Morocco

• was often a step ahead of security forces who were keen to capture him

how was Mandela arrested

• returned to South Africa in July 1962

• in the following month, he was arrested at a police roadblock outside Howick

• charged on two accounts: leaving the country without a permit and encouraging strike action

• sentenced to five years imprisonment

what was operation mayibuye

“armed to the teeth it has presented the people with only one choice and that is to overthrow by force and violence”

how was operation mayibuye discovered

• in 1963, the South African security police raided the secret headquarters of the MK on the edge of Johannesburg

• found a mass of papers outlining MK operations

what was made central in the persecution of MK leaders

involvement of the communist party

what were the charges against MK leaders

• “recruiting people for training sabotage and guerilla warfare for the purpose of violent revolution”

• “seeking and accepting money to further these aims from countries such as Ethiopia, Tunisia, Nigeria, Algeria”

• “conspiring to commit the acts mentioned above”

what was the rivonia trial

• took place between 9 October 1963 and 12 June 1964

• led to the imprisonment of Mandela and the others among the accused who were convicted of sabotage and sentenced to life in prison

• created major problems for the accused, as if they were to participate they would be accepting the regime

• eight leaders of the ANC were sentenced to life imprisonment

what was Mandela’s address from the dock

• the three hour speech Mandela gave in court

• defended the ANC’s key political positions, justified the movements in view of increasing restrictions

• used the Rivonia trial as a platform to respond to the opposition by white society

what did Mandela say in his speech

• he was one of the people who had created Umkhonto we Sizwe and played a major part in its activities

• denied that the liberation struggle was under the control of communists

• he had been planning acts of violence but not to be reckless, only after assessing the situation in the country

• the movement did not seek to harm human life

• went into detail about the inequalities suffered by blacks

international impact of the Rivonia trial

• recieved wide international coverage

• South Africa’s isolationism continued to grow

• sporting and cultural boycotts increased

domestic impact of the Rivonia trial

• short term the government had succeeded in breaking ANC and MK

• Tambo became the acting head of the ANC and worked outside of South Africa

• MK established bases in neighbouring countries where it could train and launch operations

• at the 1969 Morogoro confrence the ANC opened up membership to all races

• new structures to oppose the regime were set up such as SASO in 1968 and the Black People’s Convention in 1962

how long did Mandela spend in prison

over 27 years, 18 of those on Robben Island which was tough and primitive

what were the conditions on Robben Island

• cell was small with a metal bucket for a toilet, narrow bed and a small table

• hard labour involving breaking rocks in a lime quarry

• prisoners were not allowed to sing or play sports

• some guards would make up charges against prisoners and then impose punishments like solitary confinement and denial of food

what was Mandela able to do on Robben Island

• write an autobiography, letters and political annoucements, smuggling them out

• as time went on, conditions improved

  • education took place

  • books were allowed

  • Mandela earnt a Bachelor of Law

• Mandela often said it was the mental and emotional pain that was the hardest to bear

Mandela’s career in prison

• the world’s attention was on the Rivonia trial

• his courage to defy white law under the threat of death elevated the struggle of black South Africans and their representatives in the ANC

• he gained a high international profile

• became the figurehead in anti-apartheid protests

what was the free Mandela campaign

• Mandela being the face of the international campaign against apartheid

• in 1981, Glasgow city became the first municipal authority in Britian to make Mandela ‘a freedman of the city’

• throughout the 1980s, all over the world, streets buildings and parks were named in his honour

• the ban on the spread of his name being broken

what was the anti-apartheid movement

• was able to mobilise thousands on the campaign to free Mandela

• in 1988 organised the ‘Nelson Mandela: Freedom at 70’ Campaign with a major rock concert at Wembely

• also made it into the UK pop charts

what was the high organ

• the leadership structure set up to support ANC members in prison

• compromised Mandela, Sisulu, Raymond Mhlaba and Govan Mbeki

• Mandela was elected as its spokesperson

what did the high organ do

• members did their best to spread ideas through the various prisons on Robben Island

• might be done through hard labour or through toilet paper to spread messages

• attempted to use code in letters to family and ANC members

• focused on day to day issues relating to prison life