Looks like no one added any tags here yet for you.
when did apartheid become official government policy
1948
what was the wind of change
many African nations began to go through the policy of decolonisation
majority of African nations achieved their independence in the 1950s and 1960s
impact of african nationalism on South Africa
direct challenge to the white minority government, and deemed decolonisation as a betrayal of the ‘white man’
left it completely isolated
what did Eric Louw (South African foreign minister) predict
in 1960 he believed that white rule would soon be confined to Portugese territories, Rhodesia and South Africa
what was the wind of change speech and who was it given by
in 1960, British PM MacMillan toured Africa and observed the growing strength of African nationalism
made it clear in his speech that racial segregation was ending, and should end
political issues in South Africa
most citizens could not vote (only whites)
South Africa was isolated in its policies due to the winds of change
European withdrawal in South Africa posed an issue for the white minority, making them want to tighten policy
economic issues in South Africa
income disparity
majority of the population did not get to enjoy the advantages of the rich variety of minerals South Africa had
blacks and coloureds struggled to provide for themselves and their families on such low wages
educational differences led to different employment prospects
income disparity in South Africa
average income of the coloureds was 20% of the whites
average income of blacks was 10% of the whites
social issues in South Africa
mixed race relationships were illegal
quality of life was poor in bantustans
passbooks reinforced racial segregation and dehumanised blacks
disrupted family structures
demographic issues in South Africa
coloured people made up a large amount of population compared to white people
all citizens were characterised by race and fell into racial classifications
white community was divided between Afrikaaners and descendants from English settlers
Zulu community was culturally different to Indigenous black communities
what was the ideology of apartheid
arose from the fact that Afrikaaner nationalists believed the only way for all races to live peacefully together was for them to live seperately
white minority wanted control
scientific racism
what was the policy of apartheid
creators of it believed a designated homeland should be carved out from the land and be awarded to each of the black races
each black citizen would have to make their permanent home in their designated homeland
what were the two reigons set aside for Xhosa people
Transkei and Ciskei
what limitations were felt by the Xhosa people
their reigons were proclaimed independent, so many were denied South African citizenship and were forcibly removed
what was the Tomlinson report
Tomlinson advised the government that seperation of races could work if the government was willing to finance it
recommended that homelands be set up in several areas and should remain seperated from white communities
factories should be constructed on borders, and there would eventually be sufficient jobs near the Bantustans so they would not need to come into white areas at all
what was the homeland system
relocation of black Africans to impoverished and rural areas
meant that they were no longer South African citizens and were forced to work in the country as foreign migrants
stats about the homeland system
13% of the country was divided into 10 homelands
70-80% of the population lived in these homelands
what did the Tomlinson report fail to consider
area set aside for black homelands was not sufficient in size or quality to sustain the blacks who were supposed to live there
government refusal to spend money to improve the work on bantustans
lived in terrible poverty
what were pass raids
conducted by police reguarly
if a persons passbook was not in order or if they didn’t have one, they were sent back to native homeland
effect of pass raids
they happened so often that most Africans had been arrested for a pass law offence, and had an affect of turning the majority of the African population into criminals
what was the Population Registration Act (1952)
a central population register where all persons would be classified as whites, coloureds, asians or blacks
mixed marriages over time made this complicated as often members of one family would be classified as another race
the Abolition of Passes Act (1952)
enforced pass books or refrence books
required all men living in white areas to carry a pass book containing personal details
the Group Areas Act (1950)
provided for a particular area to be proclaimed as an area for a particular racial group
the Seperate Amenitites Act (1953)
marked out all the public places and services with signs such as ‘Europeans only’, black and coloured public services were always inferior
the Prohibition of Mixed Marriages Act (1949)
prohibited marriages between whites and members of other races
the Immorality Amendment Act (1950)
forbade sexual relations between whites and members of other races. to enforce this, police raided houses and broke into bedrooms to photograph couples breaking the law
the Bantu education act (1953)
black students were forced to undertake courses seperately to white students, and trained as domestic servants for white masters. Subjects were taught in Afrikaans.
the Native Labour (settlement of disputes) Act 1953
prohibited registered trade unions from accepting black workers as members and forbade black workers from going on strike
racial dynamics
when white people interacted with black people it was in the context of ‘master-servant’
commonly an elderly black man would refer to any white child as ‘baas’ or ‘master’ and all black men were known was boys
what did passbooks include
fingerprints, photograph, name of employer, address, how long they have been employed
what were townships
set up far from white areas to prevent white suburbs from being swamped, but still needed black labour. they were crowded and suffered from a lack of decent facilities. allowed blacks to live within the bantustans and travel to work each day
example of a township
Soweto, outside of Johannesburg
townships for women
apartheid laws forbade women to travel to cities and towns by denying them passes
however some moved to join their husbands in the cities and lived in constant fear
officials sometimes held a crackdown, but most came back anyways
what were shanty towns
appeared on the outskirts of many towns and cities to house the black families who defied the pass laws
example of destroying black townships
Sophiatown in the 1960s: Africans were piled into trucks and driven away, and was reoccupied by white Afrikaaners who named it Triomf
impact on black family life
the ‘migrant worker’ labour policy was entrenched in the apartheid system as it meant black men had their lives seperated into two parts (family and worker)
families were divided, children did not have the benefit of their fathers
men resorted to prostitutes while away from their wives
no sense of family was developed
farming became the responsibility of women
what change occured for migrant workers 1968 onwards
previously they could take an extended leave from their jobs to spend time with families, but this rule changed
a migrant worker had to re-register for their job within 28 years of leaving it or someone else was given it
meant they only saw their families two weeks out of every year
effect of increase in business during the 1960s and 1970s
South Africa’s white urban community began to enjoy a high standard of living
black African wages lowered
urban African factory workers were often earning only about 20% of their white co-workers
bottom 40% of the population earning 6% of the national income
infant mortality for black africans
was thirteen times that of whites
25% of African and coloured children died before their first birthday
housing stats for black Africans
In Praetoria between 1967 and 1976, not a single house was built for African families
a typical four room house in Soweto could have 14 or more people living in it
culture in rural communities
retention of the system of chiefs became symbolic, as the chiefs had little power and ended up being civil servants for the white government
living conditions in rural communities
very poor
rise of diseases
malnutrition
mental health was poor and serious social problems were common amongst many families
malnutrition in rural communities
in 1981 over 50,000 children died of malnutrition
over 100,000 were at risk of death in the bantustans
statistic about forced removals
more than 3.5 million blacks have been forcibly removed since 1960, for many more than once
what forms did forced removal take
rural tenants being evicted from white owned farms
blacks living in unauthorised areas risked being removed and punished
nature of the homelands
in the Qwaqwa homeland, the density was 298 per square kilometre
agricultural cultivation became close to impossible under such crowded conditions
always isolated
tactics of the ANC
originally pursued entirely peaceful forms of protest
when the Youth League was created, a major rift had developed between the older and younger members of the ANC
younger members wanted to adopt more militant approaches
how was the ANC formed
created in 1912 as the South African Native National Congress but did not represent the majority of black Africans in the earliest period of protest
since its inception has dominated the leadership of the resistance movement
began to built up a mass membership following WWII
who dominated the Youth League of the ANC
Nelson Mandela
what was program of action
the aim of the youth league, which was to encourage mass protests, boycotts of white services and passive resistance against apartheid laws
what was the defiance campaign
aim was to deliberately but politely break apartheid laws such as curfews and pass laws
wanted to get arrested and flood the country’s prison systems to draw public attention
why was the defiance campaign called off
police responded with extreme violence, especially in the Eastern Cape
what were the responses of the white government to the ANC
the Suppression of Communism act (1950) made the communist party illegal and gave the government power to declare any similar organisation illegal
the Public Safety Act (1953) enabled the government to declare a state of emergency if it believed public order was threatened
banning orders were also placed on political activists
who did the congress alliance consist of
the ANC, the South African Council of Trade Unions, the South Afrian Indians congress and the Coloured peoples association
what did the Congress Alliance do in 1955
members traveled the country collecting the demands of all ordinary Africans for a ‘just and free society’. Demands were compiled into the freedom charter
what was the freedom charter
statement of the Congress Alliance’s principles and political aims. important as it mobilised people over a lengthy period and helped to revive the ANC
white government response to the Freedom Charter
regarded it as a treasonable document and claimed the congress alliance was planning to overthrow the state, treason trial occured
what was treason trial
156 members of the congress alliance were arrested and charged with treason
lasted from 1956 to 1961 but the government failed to prove that the treason had been intended
image shot by Eli Weinburg
what was Umkhonto we Sizwe
‘spear of the nation’
carried out acts of sabotage against key infrastructure in South Africa
when was the ANC banned
1960
effect of the banning of the ANC
operated in exile
made appeals to international bodies and governments to put pressure on the white government to dismantle the apartheid system
how did the PAC begin
in 1959, a splinter group within the ANC broke away from it and formed a new organisation
difference between PAC and ANC
ANC was non racial democratic freedom for all races, whereas the PAC was pro African and arguably anti white.
PAC was mostly opposed to the congress alliance
did not believe in the inclusion of other racial groups and the affiliation with the communist party
what was Poqo
the PAC’s underground military unit, far more militant than the ANC as it was not opposed to the taking of human life
location of Sharpeville
a black township situated 50kms southwest of Johannesburg
when was Sharpeville
21st March 1960
what happened at Sharpeville
PAC organised a protest against the pass laws, where large numbers of people would march to the police station without their pass books to admit they brome the law. The theory was that the police could not lock up every black person
how many protestors converged at Sharpeville
over 5000
what did police do in response to the protest at Sharpeville
police claim the blacks were brandishing weapons and threatening the police
police lined up and were ordered to load their guns
started shooting into the crowd, lasting about 20-30 seconds
69 were killed and 180 were wounded
what happened at Langa
at the same time as Sharpeville, the PAC was demonstrating and 20,000 people gathered
police ordered them to disperse and when they didn’t, the police charged the crowd, who threw stones at them
police then fired into the crowd killing 2 and wounding 49
significance of Sharpeville and Langa
international opinion began to turn against the South African government
government responses to Sharpeville and Langa
Verwoerd government declared a state of emergency
18,000 demonstraters were arrested
confirmed the necessity of even harsher implementation of apartheid
ANC and PAC were banned
ANC and PAC responses to Sharpeville and Langa
forced to go underground
established military wings (umkhonto we sizwe and poqo)
Mandela argued that his people were left with no alternative to a violent struggle
confirmed that the white government could not go down without a fight
international impact of Sharpeville and Langa
UN passed a resolution expressing anger at the government, offered sympathy to the families and called upon the governent to end apartheid
South Africa began to experience growing international isolation
recieved international condemnation
economic impact of Sharpeville and Langa
many foreign investors withdrew their funds
dramatic drop in the level of white immigration
still remained okay, rate of return was very good
experiencing an economic boom
symbolic significance of Sharpeville and Langa
Mandela signed the consitution in 1996 and opened the Sharpeville memorial
21st march as human rights day
when did Mandela join the ANC
was quickly becoming politically involved by the early 1940s and joined along with Sisulu
soon proposed the creation of an ANC Youth League and called for more forceful protests
Mandela’s work in the ANC
created the Youth League
held other leadership positions through which he helped revitalise the organisation and oppose apartheid policies
in the late 1940s he helped launch the defiance program
in 1955 he was involved in the drafting of the freedom charter
what did Mandela do when underground in 1961
formed Umkhonto we Sizwe which became the military arm of the ANC and sought to organise sabotage and resistence to the apartheid regime
early actions were aimed at targets such as power stations and government offices
why did Mandela have to go underground
he was banned in 1952 and severly restricted in travel, association and speech
what was the MK use of sabotage
commenced in december 1961
initial aim was to show that there was a clear break with the previous 50 years of nonviolent protest
electricity pylons and pass ofices were targeted and attacks were carried out at night to avoid injuring people
other attacks were against power stations and other strategic government buildings and symbols of apartheid
what training did Mandela undergo
guerilla training in Ethiopia and Morocco
was often a step ahead of security forces who were keen to capture him
how was Mandela arrested
returned to South Africa in July 1962
in the following month, he was arrested at a police roadblock outside Howick
charged on two accounts: leaving the country without a permit and encouraging strike action
sentenced to five years imprisonment
what was operation mayibuye
“armed to the teeth it has presented the people with only one choice and that is to overthrow by force and violence”
how was operation mayibuye discovered
in 1963, the South African security police raided the secret headquarters of the MK on the edge of Johannesburg
found a mass of papers outlining MK operations
what was made central in the persecution of MK leaders
involvement of the communist party
what were the charges against MK leaders
“recruiting people for training sabotage and guerilla warfare for the purpose of violent revolution”
“seeking and accepting money to further these aims from countries such as Ethiopia, Tunisia, Nigeria, Algeria”
“conspiring to commit the acts mentioned above”
what was the rivonia trial
took place between 9 October 1963 and 12 June 1964
led to the imprisonment of Mandela and the others among the accused who were convicted of sabotage and sentenced to life in prison
created major problems for the accused, as if they were to participate they would be accepting the regime
eight leaders of the ANC were sentenced to life imprisonment
what was Mandela’s address from the dock
the three hour speech Mandela gave in court
defended the ANC’s key political positions, justified the movements in view of increasing restrictions
used the Rivonia trial as a platform to respond to the opposition by white society
what did Mandela say in his speech
he was one of the people who had created Umkhonto we Sizwe and played a major part in its activities
denied that the liberation struggle was under the control of communists
he had been planning acts of violence but not to be reckless, only after assessing the situation in the country
the movement did not seek to harm human life
went into detail about the inequalities suffered by blacks
international impact of the Rivonia trial
recieved wide international coverage
South Africa’s isolationism continued to grow
sporting and cultural boycotts increased
domestic impact of the Rivonia trial
short term the government had succeeded in breaking ANC and MK
Tambo became the acting head of the ANC and worked outside of South Africa
MK established bases in neighbouring countries where it could train and launch operations
at the 1969 Morogoro confrence the ANC opened up membership to all races
new structures to oppose the regime were set up such as SASO in 1968 and the Black People’s Convention in 1962
how long did Mandela spend in prison
over 27 years, 18 of those on Robben Island which was tough and primitive
what were the conditions on Robben Island
cell was small with a metal bucket for a toilet, narrow bed and a small table
hard labour involving breaking rocks in a lime quarry
prisoners were not allowed to sing or play sports
some guards would make up charges against prisoners and then impose punishments like solitary confinement and denial of food
what was Mandela able to do on Robben Island
write an autobiography, letters and political annoucements, smuggling them out
as time went on, conditions improved
education took place
books were allowed
Mandela earnt a Bachelor of Law
Mandela often said it was the mental and emotional pain that was the hardest to bear
Mandela’s career in prison
the world’s attention was on the Rivonia trial
his courage to defy white law under the threat of death elevated the struggle of black South Africans and their representatives in the ANC
he gained a high international profile
became the figurehead in anti-apartheid protests
what was the free Mandela campaign
Mandela being the face of the international campaign against apartheid
in 1981, Glasgow city became the first municipal authority in Britian to make Mandela ‘a freedman of the city’
throughout the 1980s, all over the world, streets buildings and parks were named in his honour
the ban on the spread of his name being broken
what was the anti-apartheid movement
was able to mobilise thousands on the campaign to free Mandela
in 1988 organised the ‘Nelson Mandela: Freedom at 70’ Campaign with a major rock concert at Wembely
also made it into the UK pop charts
what was the high organ
the leadership structure set up to support ANC members in prison
compromised Mandela, Sisulu, Raymond Mhlaba and Govan Mbeki
Mandela was elected as its spokesperson
what did the high organ do
members did their best to spread ideas through the various prisons on Robben Island
might be done through hard labour or through toilet paper to spread messages
attempted to use code in letters to family and ANC members
focused on day to day issues relating to prison life