AQA Cold War A-Level Unit 1 Complete

What were the leading capitalist states at the beginning of WWII?

Britain and the USA were the leading capitalist states at the beginning of WWII.

What does free market economics mean?

Free movement of goods with minimum government intervention, businesses would compete for maximum profit and the competition would benefit everyone.

How did capitalist democracies choose their leaders?

Capitalist democracies held free elections which enabled citizens to select their leaders from a range of candidates and political parties.

When was the Russian Revolution?

1917

How did Karl Marx define capitalism?

He believed that capitalism led to the exploitation of the proletariat to the advantage of the bourgeoisie.

What did Marx believe capitalism was?

A stage on the inevitable path to communism, when the proletariat realised how oppressed they were, they would rise up against bourgeoisie creating an egalitarian state.

How and why did Lenin modify the Marxist theory of communism?

Russia had been slow to industrialise, the proletariat was relatively small compared to more advanced industrialised nations. Therefore, Lenin determined that the revolution needed to be led by a relatively small workers' elite.

How did Stalin deviate from the path to true communism?

He developed the "cult of personality" and became obsessed with protecting his position as leader of the state.

Why did the USA and the USSR regard each other's ideaology as a threat?

Both were equally convinced of the need to expand their ideology and became obsessed with increasing their global influence.

What was the second front?

D-Day, 1944, British and American troops pushed the Nazis back towards Germany from the West whilst Soviet troops did the same from the East.

How did FDR and Stalin differ in their aims for post-war Eastern Europe?

Franklin D Roosevelt had envisaged a post-war settlement of self-determination whereby each country formed its own government. However, Stalin viewed these Eastern European states as an essential buffer zone to protect Soviet security and wished to the state to remain part of the Soviet sphere of influence.

Who were the 'Big Three' and what was the conference they met at in February 1945?

During the Yalta conference in February 1945 the big three, Stalin, Roosevelt and Winston Churchill, met to negotiate the post-war settlement of Europe.

What agreement was reached regarding Germany at Yalta?

Germany would be divided into four zones each administered by an allied power. These were to be the USA, the USSR, UK and France. Berlin would be similarly divided.

What agreement was reached regarding Poland at Yalta?

USSR would gain land from Poland, and Poland would be expanded to the East and the West.

As well as agreements over Germany and Poland, what else was agreed at Yalta?

The United Nations organisation would be formally ratified. A declaration on liberated Europe would be created.

What were the aims of Roosevelt and Churchill at Yalta?

Collective security based on the United Nations (UN). Long-term cooperation with the USSR. The right to national self-determination and no spheres of influence. Germany's reconstruction and free education as a democratic nation. World economic reconstruction through the creation of the IMF and the World Bank

What were Stalin's aims at Yalta?

The USSR to be in control of its own destiny, not part of a collective security organisation. Cooperation with the Anglo-Americans. Guaranteed security through the Soviet spheres of influence in Eastern Europe. Germany to remain weak for the indefinite future. Economic reconstruction for the USSR, mainly at Germany's expense.

Why was Stalin preoocupied with Soviet security after WWII?

Russia had been invaded twice via Poland in the first half of the 20th C. World War II had devastated the Soviet Union's towns, cities, agriculture and industry and left 25 million Soviet dead.

What was Stalin's piority for Eastern Europe after WWII?

To ensure that the Eastern European states on the western border of the Soviet Union, which Soviet troops had liberated from the Nazis remained within the Soviet sphere of influence.

AS well as security and territory in Eastern Europe, what else was Stalin determined to achieve from the post-war settlement?

Stalin was determined to cripple Germany until such time as the Soviet Union could turn Germany into a Communist state.

What was Roosevelt's vision for a post war Europe?

One based on the American concept of liberal democracy and self-determination of states. He was convinced that Stalin shared his vision for a post-war Europe in which security could be managed through an international peacekeeping organisation.

What was Britain's position at the end of WWII?

Churchill did not trust Stalin and believed that it was his intention to expand Soviet influence in post-war Europe. Britain had been crippled by the war whilst Churchill clung to the notion that Britain still enjoyed great power status, realistically this was only secured through a close alliance with America.

What agreement did Churchill and Stalin reach which undermined Roosevelt's commitment to self-determination?

The percentages agreement on the division of Eastern Europe into spheres of influence which underlined Churchill's commitment to contain Soviet expansion at the expense of Roosevelt's desire for self-determination.

What were the details of the percentages agreement?

The USSR was to have a 90% stake in Romania whilst the Soviet Union would have a 90% stake in Greece; Hungary would be divided 50% each.

What diagreements emerged at Yalta on the Declaration on Liberated Europe?

How it was interpreted in relation to Poland, Stalin was determined that a Communist government should stay in place whilst Roosevelt insisted it become a democracy.

When did the war in Europe end?

Hitler committed suicide in April 1945 and the war in Europe ended in May

Why were the USA and Britain keen to avoid Soviet intervention in the Pacific war?

They feared Soviet presence in the Pacific war would lead to Soviet ambitions territory in the East from the post-war settlement.

When was the Potsdam conference?

July 17 to August 1 1945

What change in personnell took place during the Potsdam conference?

President Roosevelt had died in April and was replaced by his vice president Harry S Truman. Churchill attended the beginning of the conference but was defeated in the general election and replaced on July 26 by the leader of the Labour Party and new prime minister Clement Attlee.

What technological development gave the USA the advantage in negotiations at Potsdam?

The day before the conference the USA had successfully detonated its first atomic bomb.

How did personal relations impact upon negotiations at Potsdam?

Truman was far less amenable to Stalin that Roosevelt had been and both Stalin and his Foreign Minister Molotov were determined not to be intimidated by the USA's nuclear monopoly and Truman's abrasive manner.

What agreements were reached at Potsdam with regard to Germany?

Germany was to be completely disarmed and demilitarised. De-nazification was to be carried out. War crimes would be judged and all former Nazi party members were to be removed from public office. Decentralisation of the political system was to be undertaken and local responsibility developed. Freedom of speech and a free press were to be restored as was religious tolerance.

What financial settlement was reached at Potsdam with regard to Germany?

Germany was to become a single economic unit with common policies on industry and finance. The USSR was to receive reparations from its own zone and an additional 25% from Western zones.

What were the shortcomings of the Potsdam negotiations?

They did not reinforce the notion of international cooperation needed to restore a lasting peace post-war Europe. It did not lay the foundations for a positive relationship between the communist east and capitalist West. It failed to address the growing suspicion and uncertainty that had developed between the USA and the Soviet Union.

What were Truman's aims for the post war settlement?

National self-determination, free trade, world economic reconstruction through the creation of the IMF and the World Bank which would preserve America's new found superpower status by maximising access to world markets.

What did Truman fear for Eastern Europe at the end of WWII?

The growth of Soviet power in Eastern Europe, the removal of anti-Communist leaders and the installation of pro-communist governments.

Why did Eastern Europe become so important for Stalin by Potsdam?

Eastern Europe became the basis of the USSR's long-term security plan, for this plan to succeed, those states needed to be politically and economically compatible with the Soviet Union.

What were Atlee's aims at Potsdam?

America to defend Western zones of Germany against any Soviet threat. Furthermore, he was anxious to restore Germany particularly given Stalin's refusal to meet the terms of the declaration on liberated Europe which were made at Yalta.

What was the outcome of Stalin's desire for security in Eastern Europe by 1948?

By 1948 the Soviet Union had established Communist regimes in Poland, Hungary, Bulgaria, Romania, Albania and Czechoslovakia. Therefore Stalin had a buffer zone of allies to reinforce the defensive capability of the Soviet Union

How did the post war political situation in Eastern Europe help Stalin to establish Communist regimes?

Communism was popular in Eastern Europe in the aftermath of the Nazi occupation during World War II, to some extent they were seen as freedom fighters for their opposition to the Nazis. Therefore, Stalin did not necessarily have to impose communism upon those countries, rather he had to resort to tactics such as the intimidation of opposition candidates and rigging election results to ensure Communist victory.

Were Stalin's actions in Eastern Europe motivated by a commitment to Communist ideology?

Stalin's first priority was the maintenance of his own power and authority, his commitment to Communist ideology was secondary. This was his motivating factor in Eastern Europe and it became essential for the communist regimes which sprang up there to be loyal to Moscow first and foremost rather than to ideology.

How did Stalin use Poland as a testing ground for his approach to ensuring Eastern European countries became Communist?

He ensured that Soviet friendly Communists infiltrated left-wing groups which then merged with the mainstream Communist party. Some Poles such as Deputy Prime Minister Gomulka argued that as they had fought for their own liberation they should have the right to determine their own future; he was replaced by the pro-Stalinist Boleslaw Bierut in 1948.

How did Bulgaria become Communist?

Stalin manipulated elections and forcibly removed opponents such as the leader of the agrarian party Nikola Petkov who was executed on trumped up charges and his party forcibly absorbed into the Communist movement, by April 1947 all other political parties had been banned.

How did Hungary become Communist?

The Communists formed alliances with other political groups, political opponents were arrested and the elections were manipulated to produce the desired outcome for the Communists.

Was there any opposition to the establishment of Stalinist Communism in Hungary?

Communist leader Laszlo Rajk formed closer links with Yugoslavia, Rajk was executed for anti-Soviet activities and by 1949 there was no opposition to the Moscow backed Hungarian Communists.

Why was the situation in Czechoslovakia in the post war period different to most other states on Russia's border?

Czechoslovakia was industrialised and had a large unionised working class. Communism was popular with the rural peasants because they had given them land during World War II and so the Czech party leader, Klement Gottwald became Prime Minister. In spite of some opposition from anti-Communist groups, by 1948 the pro-Moscow Communists led by Edvard Benes were in complete control.

Why was Yugoslavia able to gain independence from Stalin's control?

The Communist movement in Yugoslavia was firmly in place at the end of World War II and its leader Josip Broz Tito was a committed Stalinist. However this limited Soviet influence over Yugoslavia and led to conflict because Tito refused to become a Stalinist puppet.

When was Yugoslavia expelled from Cominform and how were they able to survive when they were?

In June 1948 Yugoslavia was expelled from Cominform but was able to survive because the USA was willing to offer economic aid to any state which opposed the USSR.

Who was George Kennan?

An officer in the US Embassy in Moscow

When did Kennan send the 'Log telegram'?

February 22 1946

What was Kennen's assessment of the relationship with the USSR?

He saw communism as uncompromising in its ideological threat to the free world and that Stalin was legitimising his regime by replacing the fear of Germany and Japan with that of the USA and Britain in the minds of the Soviet people. He saw the collapse in East-West relations as inevitable and the fault of the Soviet Union.

What approach did Kennan favour in Europe?

He favoured a hard-line approach against the USSR, he also he had supported the idea of splitting Europe into spheres of influence to define a line across which the Soviet Union and Communist influence could not cross.

How did the USSR respond to the 'Long telegram'?

In September 1946 the Soviet ambassador in Washington, Nikolai Novikov concluded that the USA's foreign policy was based on economic imperialism which aimed to ensure that other states were dependent upon it to ensure the USA's global supremacy.

What was the significance of the 'Long telegram' in terms of the US approach to foreign policy?

The 'Long telegram' marked another step in America's shift from traditional isolationism in favour of taking a lead role in international affairs.

Where and when did Churchill give the 'Iron Curtain' speech.

in March 1946 he gave a speech at Fulton Missouri.

How did Stalin depict Soviet foreign policy?

He presented a benign Soviet Union peacefully seeking Eastern European allies to reinforce the USSR's security. This was the traditional Soviet explanation for its foreign policy in Eastern Europe.

What was Stalin's response to the Marshall plan?

His response was to create the Communist information bureau (Cominform) to unite and coordinate Communist groups throughout Europe in order to ensure it functioned as a whole under direction from Moscow.

What was the situation in Greece following WWII?

Greece remained within the Western sphere of influence after World War II, a Civil War had broken out between monarchists and the Communists.

How did the Greek civil war consolidate the US position in Europe?

Britain had been funding anti-Communist forces. However, in February 1947 Britain, its economy crippled by war, announced that this aid was no longer available and appealed to the USA to assume the financial burden.

When did Truman outline his vision for the USA's revised role in international relations?

In a speech given to Congress on 12th March 1947.

What is the memorable quote from the Truman Doctrine speech?

I believe that it must be the policy of the United States to support free peoples who are resisting attempted subjugation by armed minorities or by outside pressures.

What is the traditional or orthodox interpretaion of the Truman Doctrine?

It was designed to protect democracy and freedom in response to Soviet expansionism in Eastern Europe.

Why did Truman exaggerate the Soviet threat?

It was necessary to demonise the Soviet Union in the minds of the American people in order to justify the break with isolationism.

What is the revisionist economic interpretaion of the Truman Doctrine?

It was to develop the USA's global economic power by forming close relations with states which would inevitably become militarily and economically dependent upon them.

What aspect of Cold War foreign policy did the Truman Doctrine represent?

It was the first step in a policy of containing the spread of communism which was reinforced by the Marshall plan in June 1947.

What was the US policy towards Europe following World War II?

Immediately following World War II there were no indications that the USA's policy towards Europe would be any different to that isolationist policy she had previously pursued.

What were the early signs that the US would be forced to take a more proactive role in Europe?

In July 1945 Asst Secretary of State Dean G Acheson warned that Europe's infrastructure and financial systems were in ruins which threatened the creation of democratic post war governments. This view was reinforced by Undersecretary of State William L Clayton in May 1947 who concluded that Europe will experience social, economic and political disintegration without a substantial increase in aid from the USA.

Which European country did the US feel most able to work with over the post war settlement?

For the USA Britain was a stable political partner in Europe. Equally, Britain needed the support of the USA in order to maintain its international status

Why was Britain the country which the USA felt most able to work with following World War II?

Britain had a Labour government in the aftermath of World War II but the Western European states had more left-wing and less stable governments which meant that Britain was a state which the USA could do business with and the relationship was mutually beneficial.

What did under Secretary of State for economic affairs William Clayton conclude in 1947?

That a failure to revive the economies of European states would damage the USA economically. His analysis exaggerated the importance of Europe to the USA but was supported by George Keenan's policy planning staff group which reported that the damage caused by World War II to the economic, political and social structure of Europe was a greater threat than that of communism.

What was the US government's response to Clayton and Keenan's assessments of the financial situation in post war Europe?

The focus of US aid to Europe should be on the restoration of Europe's economic strength and to this end George Marshall unveiled his plan, known officially as the European recovery program (ERP).

What aid to the US provide to Europe under the terms of the Marshall plan?

Between 1947 and 1950 to the Marshall plan provided $13.5 billion of aid to 16 countries in Europe. The aid came in the form both of money as well as goods.

What conditions did the US attach to recipients of Marshall aid?

Some of it had to be spent on importing goods from the USA. Thus the plan aimed to benefit the American economy whilst leading European economic reconstruction and promoting European unity with the creation of a stable European bloc which was loyal to America and would assist in the containment of communism.

What did the US fear might be the political consequence of financial instability in Europe?

The USA was concerned that continued financial instability would increase the risk of Communist government in Western Europe, particularly in France and Italy. The French Communist Party had 1.7 million members in 1947.

Why did the USA offer Marshall aid to all European states including those within Stalin's sphere of influence?

The USA deemed it necessary to promote political and economic stability in Western Europe in order to reduce the attraction of communism to a despairing population and reduce the influence of the Soviet Union. To this end Marshall Aid was made available to all states including the Soviet Union.

What was the Soviet interpretation of the Marshall plan?

To the Soviet Union the Marshall plan as a clear example of American economic imperialism or "dollar imperialism".

What did Stalin fear might be a consequence of the Marshall plan?

Stalin believed that the US influence might spread into Eastern Europe and so undermine the Soviet sphere of influence.

Which Eastern bloc countries were not fully under Soviet control by 1947?

Czechoslovakia and Hungary were still not fully under Communist control and Stalin feared that if they received Marshall Aid, this would lead to a degree of integration of their economies with the wider European economic community and the limit the control which the Soviets could hold over them.

What was the Soviet response to the Marshall plan?

To walk out of the Paris peace conference in July 1947 and to establish Cominform in September.

What was the impact of the Marshall plan on East-West relations over Europe?

The Marshall plan accelerated and reinforced the division of Europe because Stalin's response was to tighten Soviet control thereby further undermining the possibility of cooperation between the two superpowers.

What was Bizonia?

In January 1947 the British and American zones in Germany and Berlin were merged into a single zone known as Bizonia.

What was Stalin's reaction to the creation of Bizonia?

For Stalin this confirmed that the USA was intent on creating a West German state which would become a leading force in the rebuilding of an economically stable and United Western Europe.

Following the creation of Bizonia, what intensified the East-West division over Germany and Berlin?

In February 1948 a new currency was introduced into the Western occupied zones of Germany and Berlin which was formally activated in June and led to a Soviet blockade on Berlin

What was the outcome of the meeting of the Council of foreign ministers in Moscow in 1947?

The meeting broke up having failed to reach an agreement on a peace treaty with Germany.

By 1947 why was it clear to the USA that a divided Germany was preferable to a united one?

It became clear that a divided Germany was preferable to the USA than a united Germany which might become aligned to the Soviet Union.

Why was the USA concerned over the possible consequences of a united Germany?

A unified Germany may become too powerful by manipulating both Eastern and Western powers. A united Germany might align itself to the USSR. American influence might be undermined if Germany developed a degree of economic independence.

What policy did the USA decided to pursue towards Germany by 1947?

Promoting a West German economic recovery rather than a re-unified German recovery would be more manageable and therefore ensure US influence in Europe.

How were the four zones of Germany administered following World War II?

Each of the four zones of Germany had a military governor but each could be administered differently. The powers were supposed to coordinate their actions through the Allied control Council (ACC) to maintain economic and political unity in Germany. Decisions by the ACC had to be unanimous.

What political parties did Stalin initially allow in the Soviet zone of Germany?

The Communists (KPD), the German social Democrats (SPD), liberals (LDPD), Christian Democrats (CDU)

What was Stalin's intention for the political settlement of East Germany?

That the communist groups would emerge as the dominant party and would form the nucleus of a whole German Communist movement.

How did Stalin react when the Communist Party failed to emerge as the dominant political force in east Germany?

The SPD and KPD were forcibly merged in February 1946 to create the German Socialist Unity party (SED). This forced marriage met with significant opposition amongst SPD members led by Kurt Schumacher which led to the failure of the Soviet attempt to influence German politics at a national level.

What policies were introduced into the Soviet zone of Germany following World War II?

These included land reform, the nationalisation of large industrial production, compulsory tuition in the Russian language for German school pupils.

How did the Soviets seek to extend communism to East Germany as they had in other Eastern European states?

The Communists gradually took control of other left-wing groups as they had done in order to establish control across Eastern Europe.

What was the British zone of Germany?

Approximately 22.5 million people including the major port of Hamburg and the Ruhr industrial region.

Why was a British afraid of Soviet ambitions in the Ruhr?

As the industrial heartland of Germany it was central to her economic recovery and the British feared that Soviet influence in the region would provide access to further reparations which would weaken Germany's economic recovery and drive disaffected workers towards communism.

What significant step was taken by the British and Americans in Germany in August 1946?

The merger of the British and American zones (BIZONIA).

The US had been initially committed to the success of the joint occupation of Germany, however by the spring of 1947 what was the US military Gov, Lucius Clay, determined to say "no" to?

The Soviet demands that the Ruhr should be placed under joint Allied control. The continued social and economic deprivation of Germans living in the US and British zones. The Soviet desire to create a centralised Germany.

Until 1947 what was the French position towards Germany?

The complete dismemberment of Germany, for the internationalisation of the Ruhr and for Germany to become a number of small independent states.

How did the French position towards the future of Germany change?

Ultimately the favoured the creation of two German states with the western part closely allied to the Western powers; this was to ensure French security against a revived German state.

By 1946 why was disagreements over reparations?

The Soviet Union was removing resources such as industrial plant to ensure its own economic recovery, although this had been agreed by the Allies the USSR exceeded its mandate. In May 1946 General Clay announced there would be no more Soviet reparations until there was a general agreement on German economic recovery.