Anatomy Chapter 2-- Chemistry of Life

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anions

a negatively charged ion, (i.e. one that would be attracted to the anode in electrolysis)

atom

the smallest particle of an element that has the properties of the element and can exist either alone or in combination

atomic number

the number of a chemical element in the periodic system and on the periodic table that equals the number of protons in the nucleus of the atom

cation

a positively charged ion (that is attracted to the cathode in electrolysis)

compound

made up or consisting of two or more existing parts or elements

covalent bond

the equal sharing of electrons from both participating atoms (commonly found in carbon-based organic molecules, such as our DNA and proteins)

electronegative

a chemical property that describes the power of an atom in a molecule to attract shared-pair electrons towards itself

electron

a stable subatomic particle with a charge of negative electricity, found in all atoms and acting as the primary carrier of electricity in solids

elements

each of more than one hundred substances that cannot be chemically interconverted or broken down into simpler substances and are primary constituents of matter

ion

an atom or molecule with a net electric charge due to the loss or gain of one or more electrons

ionic bond

formed from the electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions

ionic lattice

a giant three-dimensional structure that is made up of oppositely charged ions

isotope

each of two or more forms of the same element that contain equal numbers of protons but different numbers of neutrons in their nuclei

mass number

the total number of protons and neutrons in a nucleus

matter

any substance that has mass and takes up space by having volume

mole

a standard scientific unit for measuring large quantities of very small entities such as atoms, molecules, or other specified particles.

molecule

a group of atoms bonded together (representing the smallest fundamental unit of a chemical compound that can take part in a chemical reaction)

neutron

a subatomic particle, symbol n or n⁰ , which has a neutral charge, and a mass slightly greater than that of a proton.

non-polar covalent bond

a type of covalent bond that occurs when two atoms share a pair of electrons equally

nucleus

the positively charged center of the atom consisting of protons and neutrons

polar covalent bond

when atoms with different electronegativities share electrons in a covalent bond (unequal, resulting in a partial negative and partial positive charge)

proton

a stable subatomic particle, symbol p , H⁺, or ¹H⁺ with a positive electric charge of +1 e

radioactive isotope

any of the species of the same chemical element that have different masses and unstable nuclei that emit radiation

salt

an ionic compound that contains a cation (base) and an anion (acid)

arrythmia

a condition in which the heart beats with an irregular or abnormal rhythm

hypertension

when the pressure in your blood vessels is too high (140/90 mmHg or higher)

rickets

a disease of children caused by vitamin D deficiency, characterized by imperfect calcification, softening, and distortion of the bones typically resulting in bow legs

tracer

substances with atomic or nuclear, physical, chemical or biological properties that can help identify, observe or follow the behaviour of various physical, chemical or biological processes

acids

any hydrogen-containing substance that is capable of donating a proton (hydrogen ion) to another substance, neutralizes alkalis

adhesion

the tendency of dissimilar particles or surfaces to cling to one another

bases

a substance that can neutralize the acid by reacting with hydrogen ions (oxides, hydroxides and carbonates of metals)

buffers

a solution that can resist pH change upon the addition of an acidic or basic components

cohesion

is the action or property of like molecules sticking together, being mutually attractive

electrolytes

a solution that generally contains ions, atoms or molecules that have lost or gained electrons, and is electrically conductive ////(Electrolytes are essential for basic life functioning, such as maintaining electrical neutrality in cells and generating and conducting action potentials in the nerves and muscles. Significant electrolytes include sodium, potassium, chloride, magnesium, calcium, phosphate, and bicarbonates)

heat of vaporization

the amount of heat needed to turn 1g of a liquid into a vapor, without a rise in the temperature of the liquid

hydrogen bond

a chemical bond that occurs between a hydrogen atom and another electronegative atom

hydrophilic

one that is able to interact with water

hydrophobic

a property of molecules that do not mix with water

inorganic molecule

a chemical compound that lacks carbon–hydrogen bonds/compound that is not an organic compound

organic molecule

a chemical compound that contains a carbon–hydrogen or carbon–carbon bond

pH scale

the negative logarithm of H+ ion concentration/a measure of how acidic/basic water is

polar molecule

a molecule that has a charge on one side of the molecule, that is not cancelled out

solvent

a substance that dissolves a solute, resulting in a solution

specific heat capacity

is the amount of heat that must be added to one unit of mass of the substance in order to cause an increase of one unit in temperature

acidosis

an excessively acid condition of the body fluids or tissues

alkalosis

a condition in which the body fluids have excess base (alkali)

dehydration reaction

the loss of water from the reacting molecule or ion

hydrolysis reaction

any chemical reaction in which a molecule of water breaks one or more chemical bonds / a double decomposition reaction with water as one of the reactants.

carbohydrates

any of a large group of organic compounds that includes sugars, starch, and cellulose, containing hydrogen and oxygen in the same ratio as water (2:1) and used as structural materials and for energy storage within living tissues

cellulose

an insoluble substance which is the main constituent of plant cell walls and of vegetable fibers such as cotton, a polysaccharide consisting of chains of glucose monomers

disaccharide

the sugar formed when two monosaccharides are joined by glycosidic linkage, soluble in water

glucose

a sugar with the molecular formula C₆H₁₂O₆, the most abundant monosaccharide//the main type of sugar in the blood and is the major source of energy for the body's cells

glycogen

a substance deposited in bodily tissues as a store of carbohydrates, a polysaccharide which forms glucose on hydrolysis

hexose

any of the class of simple sugars (monosaccharide) whose molecules contain six carbon atoms, such as glucose and fructose

pentose

a monosaccharide (simple sugar) with five carbon atoms

polysaccharides

a carbohydrate (e.g. starch, cellulose, or glycogen) whose molecules consist of a number of sugar molecules bonded together by glycosidic linkages

starch

polymeric carbohydrate consisting of numerous glucose units joined by glycosidic bonds, chief form of storage in plants

sucrose

a disaccharide, is a sugar composed of glucose and fructose subunits, produced naturally in plants

bile

a bitter greenish-brown alkaline fluid that aids digestion and is secreted by the liver and stored in the gallbladder

cholesterol

a compound of the sterol type found in most body tissues (cholesterol and its derivatives are important constituents of cell membranes and precursors of other steroid compounds)

emulsification

the process of mixing two immiscible phases(e.g., oil and water) with the aid of a surface active agent (emulsifier) into homogeneous dispersion or emulsion

emulsifiers

a compound or substance that acts as a stabilizer for emulsions

fats

a natural oily or greasy substance occurring in animal bodies, especially when deposited as a layer under the skin or around certain organs

fatty acids

important component of lipids in plants, animals, and microorganisms//a carboxylic acid consisting of a hydrocarbon chain and a terminal carboxyl group, especially any of those occurring as esters in fats and oils

functional groups

a group of atoms responsible for the characteristic reactions of a particular compound

glycerol

naturally occurring alcohol, sweet, syrupy liquid obtained from animal fats and oils or by the fermentation of glucose

lipids

any of a class of organic compounds that are fatty acids or their derivatives and are insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents

neutral fats

a type of fat (lipid) found in your blood, most common type of fat in the body///simple lipids that are produced by the dehydration synthesis of one or more fatty acids with an alcohol like glycerol

oils

any nonpolar chemical substance that is composed primarily of hydrocarbons and is hydrophobic and lipophilic

phospholipids

a molecule with two fatty acids and a modified phosphate group attached to a glycerol backbone, forms the main structural part of a cell membrane

saturated fatty acid

a type of fat in which the fatty acid chains have all single bonds between the carbon atoms

steroid

any of a class of natural or synthetic organic compounds characterized by a molecular structure of 17 carbon atoms arranged in four rings

triglycerides

an ester formed from glycerol and three fatty acid groups. (Triglycerides are the main constituents of natural fats and oils, and high concentrations in the blood indicate an elevated risk of stroke.)

unsaturated fatty acids

a fat or fatty acid in which there is at least one double bond within the fatty acid chain ( are a component of the phospholipids in cell membranes and help maintain membrane fluidity)

amino acids

molecules that combine to form proteins (any of a group of organic molecules that consist of a basic amino group (―NH2), an acidic carboxyl group (―COOH), and an organic R group (or side chain) that is unique to each amino acid)

cofactors

a substance (other than the substrate) whose presence is essential for the activity of an enzyme

degradation decomposition reactions

a chemical reaction in which one reactant breaks down into two or more products

denaturation

the breaking of many of the weak linkages, or bonds (e.g., hydrogen bonds), within a protein molecule that are responsible for the highly ordered structure of the protein in its natural (native) state

dipeptide

a peptide composed of two amino-acid residues

enzyme

a substance produced by a living organism which acts as a catalyst to bring about a specific biochemical reaction

metabolism

the sum of the chemical reactions that take place within each cell of a living organism and that provide energy for vital processes and for synthesizing new organic material.

peptide

a chemical bond by joining the carboxyl group of one amino acid to the amino group of another

primary structure

the characteristic sequence of amino acids forming a protein or polypeptide chain, considered as the most basic element of its structure

proteins

large biomolecules and macromolecules that comprise one or more long chains of amino acid residues

quaternary structure

the association of several protein chains or subunits into a closely packed arrangement

replacement reactions

a reaction in which one element is substituted for another element in a compound

secondary structure

the pattern of hydrogen bonds between the amino hydrogen and carboxyl oxygen atoms in the peptide backbone

substrate

the substance on which an enzyme can act

synthesis reaction

chemical process in which simple elements or compounds combine to form a single more complex product (ex. A+B→AB)

tertiary structure

the overall three-dimensional arrangement of its polypeptide chain in space

prion

a type of misfolded protein that can trigger normal proteins in the brain to fold abnormally

ATP (adenosine triphosphate)

a nucleotide that provides energy to drive and support many processes in living cells

complementary base pairing

the precise interaction between bases on opposing strands of DNA (the nitrogenous bases adenine, thymine, cytosine, and guanine)

DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)

a self-replicating material that is present in nearly all living organisms as the main constituent of chromosomes. It is the carrier of genetic information.

genes

a basic unit of heredity/////a sequence of nucleotides in DNA, that is transcribed to produce a functional RNA

nucleic acids

large biomolecules present in living cells, especially DNA or RNA, whose molecules consist of many nucleotides linked in a long chain

nucleotide

building block of nucleic acids////a compound consisting of a nucleoside linked to a phosphate group. Nucleotides form the basic structural unit of nucleic acids such as DNA

RNA (ribonucleic acid)

a nucleic acid present in all living cells. (Its principal role is to act as a messenger carrying instructions from DNA for controlling the synthesis of proteins, although in some viruses RNA rather than DNA carries the genetic information)