19th Century Europe Test

Liberalism

Believed individuals are equal and free, not bound by inherited privilege. Government exists to protect rights and liberty. It opposed absolute monarchy.

Main Thinkers of Liberalism

John Locke (social contract), Adam Smith (economic freedom), John Stuart Mill (individual rights).

Promotions of Liberalism

Freedom of speech, equality before the law, constitutional government, free market economics, and gradual progress.

Conservatism

Reacted against revolutionary change. It valued stability, tradition, monarchy, church, and gradual reform.

Supporters of Conservatism

Edmund Burke, Thomas Hobbes, Prince Metternich, Benjamin Disraeli.

Goals of Conservatism

Maintain order, preserve hierarchy, resist rapid change, uphold legitimacy and balance of power (as at the Congress of Vienna).

Romanticism

A movement against Enlightenment rationalism, celebrating emotion, imagination, nature, and national identity.

Thinkers/Artists of Romanticism

Rousseau, Wordsworth, Monet, Madame de Staël.

Values of Romanticism

Feelings over reason, admiration of nature, history, folklore, and the uniqueness of peoples (early nationalism).

Nationalism

The belief that people sharing a common culture, history, language, and religion should form a single nation-state.

Leaders of Nationalism

Giuseppe Mazzini, Otto von Bismarck.

Radicalism

The belief in full political and social equality—redistribution of wealth, social welfare, equality for all classes and genders.

Radicalism Demands

Universal suffrage, social safety nets, government protection for workers, and women's rights.

Democratic Socialism

Peaceful reform through democracy to achieve economic equality and social welfare.

Goals of Democratic Socialism

Collective ownership of major industries, equal rights and opportunities, reduced gap between rich and poor.

Anarchism

The rejection of all authority—political, religious, or social.

Anarchist Actions

Some promoted 'propaganda of the deed,' using violence to overthrow oppressive systems.

Reactionary

Someone who wants to return to an earlier political and social order (pre-Revolution).

Reactionary Goals

Restoration of monarchy, legitimacy, and even serfdom; opposition to liberal and nationalist movements.

Industrial Revolution

Began in Britain due to natural resources (coal, iron), a stable government, capital, colonies for raw materials, and rivers for power and transport.

Key Agricultural Innovations

Jethro Tull's seed drill, crop rotation, Enclosure Acts — increased food production and forced rural workers to cities.

Major Inventors

Richard Arkwright - Water Frame (powered textile production), James Watt - Steam Engine (factories, locomotives), Jethro Tull - Seed Drill, Eli Whitney - Cotton Gin, Samuel Morse - Telegraph.

Effects of Industrial Revolution

Economic growth, more goods, middle class expansion; poor working conditions, child labor, pollution, urban slums.

Corn Laws

British tariffs on imported grain that protected landowners and raised food prices—repealed after public pressure.

New Social Classes

Industrial middle class (bourgeoisie) and working class (proletariat).

Congress of Vienna (1815)

Meeting after Napoleon's defeat to restore monarchy, balance power, and suppress nationalism and liberalism. Led by Metternich (Austria).

Concert of Europe

Alliance system to maintain peace and prevent revolution (Austria, Prussia, Russia, Britain).

Revolutions of 1830 and 1848

Liberal and nationalist uprisings across Europe demanding constitutions, unification, and rights. Mostly failed but spread democratic ideals.

Frankfurt Parliament (1848)

German national assembly seeking unification. Debated Kleindeutsch (Prussia only) vs. Grossdeutsch (with Austria).

Humiliation of Olmütz (1850)

Austria forced Prussia to abandon its plan for a unified Germany—Austria kept dominance.

Cavour

The Head, Prime Minister of Piedmont-Sardinia.

Garibaldi

The Sword, led Redshirts in the south.

Mazzini

The Heart, nationalist writer and revolutionary.

Victor Emmanuel II

First King of unified Italy.

Steps to Unification of Italy

1. Cavour modernized Piedmont; allied with France against Austria (1859). 2. Garibaldi conquered Sicily & Naples (1860). 3. Victor Emmanuel crowned King (1861). 4. Rome annexed after French troops left (1870).

Otto von Bismarck

Chancellor of Prussia, using 'Blood and Iron' to unify Germany.

Danish War (1864)

Prussia & Austria vs. Denmark (won Schleswig & Holstein).

Austro-Prussian War (1866)

Prussia defeats Austria → creates North German Confederation.

Franco-Prussian War (1870-71)

France defeated → Germany gains Alsace-Lorraine.

Germany unified

1871 — Wilhelm I crowned Kaiser at Versailles; Bismarck became 'Iron Chancellor.'

Old vs. New Imperialism

Old (1500-1700s): Colonies for trade, direct rule. New (1800-1900s): Economic domination using tech.

Causes of New Imperialism

● Industrialization (raw materials, markets) ● Nationalism ('A place in the sun') ● Racism / Social Darwinism ● Religion (Christianize the world) ● 'Three C's': Christianity, Civilization, Commerce.

'White Man's Burden'

Idea that Europeans had a moral duty to civilize non-Western peoples (from Kipling's poem).

Berlin Conference (1884-85)

European nations divided Africa peacefully—no African input. Result: Only Ethiopia & Liberia remained independent.

Queen Victoria

Symbol of British Empire.

Cecil Rhodes

Founded Rhodesia, promoted British imperialism.

David Livingstone

Missionary/explorer in Africa.

King Leopold II

Brutal exploitation of Congo.

Benjamin Disraeli

Conservative PM, expanded empire.

William Gladstone

Liberal PM, criticized abuses.

Rudyard Kipling

Wrote 'White Man's Burden.'

Sepoy Rebellion (1857)

Indian soldiers rebelled against British rule → led to direct British control of India.

Boer War (1899-1902)

Britain fought Dutch settlers in South Africa → British victory.

Crimean War (1853-56)

Russia vs. Ottoman Empire (with Britain/France aiding Ottomans).

Paris Commune (1871)

Radical socialist uprising in Paris after Franco-Prussian War—suppressed by French army.

Meiji Restoration (1868)

Japan industrialized, adopted Western tech and government, avoided colonization.

Social Darwinism

The belief that some races/nations are "fitter" to rule—used to justify imperialism.

Three G's of Imperialism

Gold, Glory, God—motives for colonization.

The Three C's of New Imperialism

Christianity, Civilization, Commerce—European justification.

French Revolution (1789)

Birth of modern ideologies.

July Revolution (1830)

France: Louis Philippe ("Citizen King").

Industrial Revolution (1830s-40s)

Urbanization, capitalism, class change.

Revolutions of 1848

Liberal/Nationalist revolts fail.

Louis Napoleon becomes Emperor (1852)

Napoleon III.

Italian Unification begins (1859-61)

Cavour & Garibaldi unite Italy.

German Wars of Unification (1864-71)

Bismarck's "Blood & Iron."

Germany unified; Paris Commune (1871)

Shift in power to Prussia.

Boer War

British dominance in Africa.

Age of Imperialism peaks (1900s)

Global European dominance.

Outbreak of WWI (1914)

End of 19th-century order.