Edexcel AS/A-level History: Britain, 1625-1701: Conflict, revolution and settlement

Content: Theme 1: The Quest for political stability, 1625-88

-The failure of monarchical government, 1625-46: Charles I and parliament, 1625-29; personal rule and its failure, 1629-40 and the failure to compromise, 1640-49.

-Republican rule, 1649-60: reasons for the failure of Republican attempts to provide stable government; the role of Cromwell.

Charles I and parliament: 1625-29

-Charles I called three parliaments in order to secure finance for his foreign policy.

-Three parliaments in such a short period indicates that Charles' relationship with parliament had rapidly deteriorated.

-Trust broke down over the interrelated issues of religion, foreign policy, finance and problems of government.

Charles I and parliament: 1625-29: Religion

-Charles’ religious policy created political tension.

-The king’s open support for Arminianism, a form of Protestantism, alienated the majority of the political class – those who had economic, social and political influence.

-Many viewed Arminianism as being dangerously close to Catholicism.

-Charles’ support for Arminianism was shown through:

• promoting the Arminian Richard Montagu to his royal chaplain in the face of parliamentary calls for Montagu’s impeachment (1625)

• allowing his favourite, the Duke of Buckingham, to state his favour for Arminianism at the York House Conference (1626)

• making the Arminian William Laud the Bishop of London (1628).

Charles I and parliament: 1625-29: Foreign Policy

-Charles’ foreign policy was a failure.

-1625: called parliament to fund attack on the Spanish, but the raid on Cadiz was a disaster.

-When Charles sought to help the Protestant French Huguenots, his forces were again defeated at La Rochelle in 1627.

-Both of these defeats were regarded as national humiliations.

-Parliament’s anger was directed against the king’s favourite, the Duke of Buckingham, who had overseen foreign policy.

-Parliament wanted him impeached – however, Charles refused to sacrifice Buckingham as a scapegoat. The assassination of Buckingham in 1628, and the public rejoicing at his death, merely increased Charles’ hostility towards parliament.

Charles I and parliament: 1625-29: Finance

-In order to finance foreign policy Charles needed to raise additional income through taxation, which needed parliamentary approval.

-1625: parliament agreed to two subsidies amounting to £140,000. This fell well short of the £1 million Charles needed, so he asked the Commons for more.

-Parliament refused and in 1626, when short of funds, Charles dissolved parliament and sought other means of raising income.

-He levied a forced loan worth five subsidies, which was taxation that had not been agreed by parliament.

-Although the loan was successful in raising money, it caused a significant amount of resentment.

-Five knights who refused to pay were imprisoned and refused bail – this became known as the Five Knights’ case. For many, this was a clear indication of Charles’ absolutist intentions – the king was not only taxing without consent, but also imprisoning as he wished.

Charles I and parliament: 1625-29: Problems of government: the Petition of Right, 1628

-Charles’ policies in religion, foreign policy and finance led many MPs to assert that the king was acting illegally and contrary to the established forms of government.

-When Charles called his third parliament in 1628 he demanded the immediate granting of taxes to continue the wars.

-However, MPs decided that no money would be granted unless their various grievances were addressed.

-Parliament presented their grievances in the Petition of Right:

• There should be no taxation without the consent of parliament.

• There should be no imprisonment without cause shown.

• There should be no billeting of soldiers or sailors upon householders against their will.

• There should be no martial law to punish ordinary offences by sailors or soldiers.

-Desperate for parliamentary funds, the king accepted the Petition on 7 June 1628, but his written reply did not use the traditional form of words and thus denied the Petition lawful status.

-The Commons insisted on the correct response and Charles eventually gave it.

-Charles’ reaction to the Petition forced MPs to make a more direct statement of their concerns with the Three Resolutions of 2 March 1629. These denounced Arminianism and encouraged merchants to refuse to pay tonnage and poundage.

-On 10 March 1629 Charles announced the dissolution of parliament. He resolved to govern without parliament, and embarked upon eleven years of Personal Rule.

Personal Rule and its failure, 1629-40

-Personal rule was the period of eleven years when Charles I governed without parliament. It came to an end after events in Scotland forced Charles to recall parliament in 1640.

Personal Rule and its failure, 1629-40: Finance

-Charles sought to secure his financial position so that he would not have to recall parliament.

-Peace with France in 1629 + Spain in 1630 enabled him to reduce his major costs. king exploited traditional feudal dues, payments which the crown controlled and which did not need parliamentary approval. e.g: monopolies were granted to individuals or groups of merchants who had exclusive rights to import a product and fix its price at a high level.

-The key source of income for Charles was Ship Money. Traditionally, this was levied only on coastal counties for defence purposes, but in 1635 it was extended as a national tax and continued until 1640.

-Ship Money proved very successful.

-At a time when a parliamentary subsidy was worth about £70,000, Ship Money alone gave Charles an average of £200,000 annually, making it less likely that he would have to recall parliament to secure further funds. However, methods of assessing and collecting the tax caused much opposition and resentment.

Personal Rule and its failure, 1629-40: Hampden's Case

-October 1637- John Hampden, a member of the Buckinghamshire gentry, challenged the legality of Ship Money and refused to pay the tax.

-His trial became a test case on the legality of Ship Money, which was upheld by seven of the 12 judges hearing the case.

-Public opinion was alarmed by the verdict, which confirmed that the king could raise taxation without parliamentary approval.

Personal Rule and its failure, 1629-40: Religion

-1630s: Charles continued to impose Arminianism through William Laud, who was appointed as Archbishop of Canterbury in 1633.

-The key measures of Laudianism focused on the so-called ‘beauty of holiness’, through the wearing of vestments and the use of music, candles and altar cloths.

-To ensure conformity, measures were enforced through the use of visitations and supervision through the church courts. For visitations, bishops’ representatives reported which churches were conforming and brought any offenders before church courts.

Personal Rule and its failure, 1629-40: Opposition

-Initially, there was little opposition to Laudianism.

-Those who opposed its imposition were a minority, predominantly the more radical Puritans whose strength of belief made some of them more inclined to protest.

-The limited examples of open opposition indicate that there was general passive acceptance of Laudianism.

Personal Rule and its failure, 1629-40: Scotland

-1637: Charles decided to impose the Laudian Prayer Book on Presbyterian Scotland, without consulting the Scottish parliament.

-Widespread rioting broke out and in 1638 many nobles and clergy signed the National Covenant, swearing to resist all changes to the Scottish Kirk.

-The military conflicts which followed, known as the Bishops’ War, were inconclusive: the Scots were well organised and motivated, whereas Charles had insufficient funds to pay for his military campaigns.

Personal Rule and its failure, 1629-40: The collapse of Personal Rule

-1640: Charles called a parliament to finance an army to crush the Scots. This ‘Short Parliament’ only lasted three weeks before it was dissolved by Charles who refused MPs’ demands to remove Laudianism and end the practice of feudal dues before they would grant funds.

-Charles was determined to force the Scots to comply without parliamentary financial backing. However, this lack of finance undermined his attack against the Scottish forces of the National Covenant.

-August 1640 the Scots invaded northern England and occupied Newcastle. Charles was forced to negotiate with the Scots and agreed they could keep Newcastle until a settlement was reached. Charles agreed to pay the Scots £850 a day until there was a settlement, and in September 1640 writs went out to summon parliament. The ‘Long Parliament’ met for the first time in November.

The failure to compromise: 1640-49: division + drift to civil war

-1640- most MPs were united against what they regarded as the abuses of Charles’ Personal Rule. They agreed to abolish Ship Money and passed a Triennial Act, which meant that the monarch would have to call a parliament at least every three years. Charles would therefore not be able to repeat an extended period of Personal Rule.

-However, divisions among MPs began to emerge over the following areas:

• Root and Branch Petition, December 1640: This petition, from 15,000 London Puritans and supported by the radical MP John Pym, called for the removal of bishops from the church. Conservatives viewed this as a threat to the established order.

• Bill of Attainder, May 1641: This was used in parliament by Pym to justify the execution of Charles’ principal minister, Thomas Wentworth, Earl of Stafford. A Bill of Attainder needed less evidence to convict someone if they were regarded as a threat to the state. Conservatives worried that using such a device was bending the law in a way that was as much a threat to the constitution as Charles’ actions.

• Militia Bill, November 1641: This bill proposed that parliament should control any army used to crush the Irish Rebellion that began in October 1641. Conservatives regarded this as a direct threat to the most important royal prerogative – command of the armed forces.

• Grand Remonstrance, November 1641: Pym, in order to persuade wavering MPs to pass the Militia Bill, produced the Grand Remonstrance, a document listing Charles’ faults since 1625 and thus reasons why he could not be trusted with armed forces. The moderates in the Commons saw little point in dragging up old grievances which had been resolved by legislation already passed. They also disliked the way the Remonstrance was not addressed to the king but seemed to be an appeal to the people.

-Most moderate MPs regarded these as examples of increasing, and dangerous, radicalism. The reaction to Pym and his supporters became known as constitutional royalism, a number of moderates prepared to support royalism as a source of order and stability. This helped to create the two sides necessary for civil war.

The failure to compromise: 1640-49: The coming of the Civil War, January-August 1642

-January 1642: Charles tried to arrest his five leading parliamentary opponents, accusing them of seeking to subvert the laws and government of England and encouraging the Scots to invade England. The ‘Five Members’ had been forewarned and fled.

-The attempt to arrest the Five Members proved the final straw for the parliamentary opposition and highlighted how the king could no longer be trusted and that he was determined to restore his authority by force.

-Feeling intimidated by growing demonstrations and unrest in the city, Charles left London, along with his wife and children. The Commons and Lords passed the Militia Bill, taking away the king’s right to control his army.

June 1642: the Commons presented the Nineteen Propositions. These demands included:

• The Lords and Commons should approve all Privy Councillors.

• Laws against Jesuits and recusants should be enforced.

• The militia should be placed under parliamentary control.

• There should be sweeping reform of the church.

• Parliament should supervise the upbringing and marriage of Charles’ children.

-Severity suggested that parliament was not seriously intending to negotiate with the king. Attempts at compromise had broken down, and in July parliament voted to raise an army under the leadership of the Earl of Essex. In response, in August Charles raised his standard in Nottingham and declared war on parliament.

Republican rule, 1649-60

1649-60: several attempts were made to establish a stable republican regime acceptable to the country as a whole. Each experiment failed, leading to the Stuart restoration in 1660.

Republican rule, 1649-60: The Rump Parliament, 1649-53

-After the execution of Charles I, Cromwell and his supporters attempted to broaden support for the government by allowing many MPs back into parliament. This reinforced the tension between parliament and the army due to the reintroduction of conservative MPs who were less likely to enact reforms.

-In May 1649 the Rump abolished the monarchy and the House of Lords, and declared England to be a Commonwealth.

-In the short term, the New Model Army had to deal with the threat from Ireland and Scotland and this delayed any confrontation with parliament over who held power.

Republican rule, 1649-60: Ireland

-Parliament feared a possible Irish invasion of England, aimed at bringing Charles II to the throne. Cromwell landed in Ireland in July 1649 and set about restoring English rule.

-His methods were notoriously brutal.

-The garrison at Drogheda was massacred because it refused to surrender, and the town of Wexford suffered a similar fate. Cromwell left his generals to complete the subjugation of the country, and returned to England in 1650 to deal with the threat from Scotland.

Republican rule, 1649-60: Scotland

-Scotland posed a grave threat to republican rule.

-Scottish officer David Leslie commanded a powerful army which he handed over to Charles II, provoking a third civil war.

-Charles II was the son of Charles I and only had the title Charles II by the Scots’ declaration.

-Cromwell defeated the Scots at Dunbar in 1650, and in 1651 he destroyed Charles II’s armies at Worcester.

-Following his defeat, Charles II fled to France and spent nine years in exile. Cromwell’s successes in Ireland and Scotland ensured the survival of the republican government, and increased the prestige of the armed forces.

Republican rule, 1649-60: The failure of the Rump Parliament

Throughout its short life the Rump Parliament failed to command widespread support for its rule. This was because of:

• the conservative nature of many MPs

• limited finances – without substantial resources, the MPs of the Rump were less inclined to initiate significant reform

• the threat from Ireland and Scotland – facing a serious threat, the Rump had to employ its immediate resources and time

• fear of radical religious groups – MPs were concerned at the development of new groups and sought to reimpose religious control

• fear of the New Model Army – Pride’s Purge had shown the MPs of the Rump that the army held real power

• the Dutch War – resources and time were used on war with the Dutch, which broke out in 1652.

In 1653 Cromwell believed that the Rump intended to extend its life. He dissolved the Rump by force, replacing it with the Nominated Assembly.

Republican rule, 1649-60: The Nominated Assembly, 1653

The Nominated Assembly was composed of members nominated by the government. They were religious radicals determined to establish godly rule in the country.

The Assembly had substantial achievements to its credit:

• civil marriage was legalised

• registers for births, marriages and deaths were established

• the revenue system was reformed.

However, the Assembly lost the support of the political classes with its more radical proposals, including one to abolish the tithe. In December 1653 conservative members handed back the Assembly’s powers to Cromwell.

Republican rule, 1649-60: The end of the Commonwealth, 1653

The Instrument of Government of 1653 was a written constitution which aimed at giving the republic long-term stability. The Commonwealth was replaced with the Protectorate. Government was to be carried out by a Council of State, a parliament was to be elected every three years and Oliver Cromwell was installed as Lord Protector.

The role of Cromwell, 1640–58: 1640–49

Cromwell emerged as a national figure through his military success during the Civil War. Cromwell remained in parliament, alongside his role as an officer. It was with the New Model Army’s politicisation that Cromwell became more significant. Even so, it could be argued that Ireton, Cromwell’s son-in-law, was more of a driving force in bringing about the execution of the king.

The role of Cromwell, 1640–58: 1649–53

Following Charles' execution, Cromwell's political influence was again diverted due to the necessity of him leading campaigns against the Irish and then the Scots, for which he became commander-in-chief of the New Model Army in June 1650. It was only after the defeat of the Scots in 1651 and his return to London that Cromwell once again began to impose himself more directly on the political process. This explains the dissolution of both the Rump and the Nominated Assembly in 1653.

The role of Cromwell, 1640-58: The First Protectorate Parliament, 1654-55

-Cromwell hoped that the Protectorate would bring stability to political and national life, and secure the support of a broad spectrum of opinion. In this, he was to be bitterly disappointed.

-The First Protectorate Parliament met in September 1654, and displayed none of the harmony that Cromwell had hoped for. One hundred members refused to accept the Instrument of Government and withdrew from parliament. Attempts were made to reduce the size of the army, and powerful attacks were mounted against the principle of religious liberty.

-Frustrated by the parliament's attitudes, Cromwell dissolved the assembly in January 1655.

The role of Cromwell, 1640-58: The rule of the Major-Generals

-Cromwell did not immediately call a new parliament, but instead imposed direct military rule across England.

-Eleven Major-Generals were appointed to rule different areas of the country. They were to provide military security, but Cromwell’s main intention was that they would carry out a national reform of morals and behaviour. They were empowered to suppress taverns and brothels, and to punish adultery, blasphemy and drunkenness.

-The Major-Generals experiment highlighted the fundamental tensions between reform and stability which characterised the entire period of republican rule.

The role of Cromwell, 1640-58: The Second Protectorate Parliament, 1656-58

-The Second Protectorate Parliament met in September 1656 and, once again, one hundred MPs were excluded.

-In March 1657 parliament presented Cromwell with the Humble Petition and Advice, which offered the Protector the crown of England. Strong opposition from the army and religious radicals persuaded Cromwell to refuse the offer in May. He did, however, accept the office of Lord Protector for life, with the power to choose his successor.

The role of Cromwell, 1640-58: The end of the Protectorate, 1658-60

-Cromwell died in September 1658 and was succeeded by his son, Richard. The new Protector had little political experience and had no strong links with the New Model Army, the key power group. Richard was forced from office by the army’s leaders in 1659.

-A period of chaotic instability followed, caused by the inability of military and civilian groups to agree on the future government of the country.

-Order was restored by General George Monck, the commander of the army in Scotland, who crossed into England in January 1660. As he marched towards London he was presented with a large number of petitions calling for the restoration of the monarchy. Elections were held for a new parliament, and the Convention Parliament met in April 1660. Parliament resolved to restore the traditional government of king, Lords and Commons, and on 29 May Charles II was welcomed on his return to London from exile abroad.

Content: Theme 2: Religion: Conflict and dissent, 1625

-The Church of England: Laud's policies and religious uniformity; parliament's reordering of the church, 1640-60; the restoration of Anglicanism, 1660-62 and its dominant position in religious life.

-The growth of religious nonconformity: Puritanism under Charles ; Presbyterians and religious radicalism; the persecution of dissenters under Charles II and James II.

-The Catholic question: Catholic influence within Charles I's court; the exclusion of Catholics from religious toleration; anti-Catholic sentiment, 1660-88.

Religion: Conflict and dissent, 1625: Laud's policies and religious uniformity

-The Anglican Church had been established by Elizabeth I as a ‘middle way’ between Catholicism and European Protestantism. Many traditional features of Catholic worship had been retained, such as priests’ vestments and incense, but Anglican beliefs reflected the teachings of the Swiss reformer John Calvin. The ‘middle way’ was an uneasy compromise, but it ensured religious peace for many years.

By 1625 there were growing divisions within Anglicanism about the church’s beliefs and practices:

• Arminianism was a set of beliefs which promoted church services involving rituals and formal ceremony. Arminians followed the traditional Catholic belief in free will, which meant that individuals could choose whether or not to follow a path to salvation.

• Puritans were Anglicans who opposed rituals and priestly vestments. They wanted to purify services by promoting simplicity rather than ceremony. Puritans were also concerned for people’s moral improvement and supported action against moral misbehaviour, such as adultery and drunkenness. They also believed in the Calvinist doctrine of predestination – that God had already chosen those who would be saved, regardless of their behaviour during their lifetime.

William Laud, a prominent Arminian, was appointed Archbishop of Canterbury in 1633. He worked to impose greater religious uniformity on church services:

• The communion table was moved to the east end of the church, and was railed off from the congregation.

• Vestments and incense were to be used in services, and hymns and sacred music were encouraged.

• Stained-glass windows were to be installed in churches.

-These Arminian measures angered the Puritans because they stressed the outward forms of worship. Puritans believed that Laud was moving the church in the direction of Catholicism. Laud further offended the Puritans by issuing the Book of Sports in 1633, which allowed people to participate in traditional sports and pastimes on Sundays.

-Many people welcomed Laud’s reforms because they imposed fewer demands on those who attended Sunday services. They also approved of the reduction in the number of sermons, which were popular with the Puritans.

Religion: Conflict and dissent, 1625: The imposition of Laudianism

-To ensure that Laud’s measures were imposed, visitations by the agents of bishops in their dioceses were conducted more thoroughly and there is evidence of the records of these visitations being personally reviewed by Laud and Charles. Laud made use of the church courts, notably the Court of High Commission to punish, through fines or imprisonment, those who refused to implement Laudianism.

-Many Puritan clergy were unable to accept the changes to church services. After 1633 thousands of clergy, along with many of their followers, emigrated to the American colonies, where they could worship freely without fear of persecution.

-Many of the gentry also opposed Laud’s actions. These men were often strongly Calvinist, and regarded Laud’s innovations as disrupting the Elizabethan ‘middle way’. Their opposition grew with the trial of Prynne, Bastwick and Burton in 1637. They were middle-class professionals charged with smuggling anti-Arminian tracts from abroad and publishing attacks on the bishops.

-They were sentenced to have their ears mutilated and were imprisoned for life. Laud’s opponents believed that the harsh sentences were out of proportion to their offences. Attacks on Laud were to figure prominently in the meeting of the Long Parliament in 1640.

Religion: Conflict and dissent, 1625: Parliament's reordering of the church, 1640-53

-1643: parliament introduced a series of measures to reform the Church of England:

• The office of bishop was abolished in favour of a Presbyterian form of government, which meant that church rule was carried out by organisations of deacons and local elders.

• The Book of Common Prayer was banned and was replaced by the Directory of Worship.

• Arminian features of churches, such as stained glass and statues, were removed.

• Traditional Christian festivals such as Christmas and Easter were no longer celebrated. Instead, they became days of fasting and prayer.

• In 1650 a Toleration Act ended the requirement of compulsory attendance at the national church’s services.

-These changes led to thousands of parish priests being expelled from their homes. Many bishops were imprisoned or exiled, or simply went into hiding

Religion: Conflict and dissent, 1625: The restoration of Anglicanism, 1660-62

The Restoration in May 1660 restored the Anglican Church, as well as the Stuart monarchy. Charles II had demonstrated in the Declaration of Breda that he favoured religious toleration for non-conformists and Catholics. The king and his chief minister, Clarendon, sought to broaden the Church of England to accommodate moderate Protestant groups that had emerged during and after the Civil War.

-In 1661 the Savoy House Conference met to discuss the issue, but members of the Cavalier Parliament opposed the toleration offered at Breda. Instead they imposed a narrow religious settlement that became known as the Clarendon Code:

• The Corporation Act of 1661 required all involved in local government to be communicant members of the Church of England.

• The Act of Uniformity of 1662 made the Book of Common Prayer compulsory in all churches.

• Under the Conventicle Act of 1664, religious meetings of five or more people were forbidden.

• The Five Mile Act of 1665 established that clergymen who had been expelled from their parish for refusing to conform to the Act of Uniformity could not go within five miles of their former parish.

-Neither Clarendon nor the king supported the narrow and vindictive religious settlement, but they were forced to agree to parliament’s wishes. Two thousand clergy were deprived of their livings for refusing the Act of Uniformity – many of these followed the example of previous Puritans and emigrated to America.

-Although the Anglican Church had been restored in the 1660s, it could no longer pretend to have exclusive control over the country’s religious beliefs. Despite the persecution of religious dissenters, non-conformists remained a significant minority within many parts of the country.

Religion: Conflict and dissent, 1625: The growth of religious non-conformity: Puritanism under Charles I

Puritans were members of the Church of England who opposed Elizabeth I's 'middle way'. They remained within the church because they supported Anglican doctrines which reflected the views of John Calvin. However, they were strong opponents of the rituals of Anglican services, which they believed retained too many features of Catholic worship. They wanted further reforms that would implement a more purified and Protestant form of worship.

Religion: Conflict and dissent, 1625: The growth of religious non-conformity: Puritan opposition

Puritans opposed most of Laud’s policies which promoted the Arminian beliefs on the ‘beauty of holiness’. They suspected that Laud and Charles were both determined to restore Catholicism as England’s official religion.

-Puritan opposition, though strong in London and in provinces such as East Anglia, was not often expressed openly. Many Puritans were politically conservative, and the gentry knew that they had much to lose from opposing the king. The imposition of Arminianism also limited the scope for Puritan opposition:

• Puritan books and pamphlets were censored, and texts brought from abroad were seized and destroyed.

• Although predestination was a part of Anglican doctrine, preaching on predestination was banned.

• Puritan preachers were no longer financed by town councils or by individuals.

It was only the most committed Puritans who were prepared to openly oppose Laudianism:

• In 1633 the Puritans of the parish of St Gregory’s in London unsuccessfully tried to use the courts to oppose Charles’ policy of railing off the altar.

• In 1638 the Puritan John Lilburne was whipped through the streets of London for distributing anti-Laudian pamphlets.

-Open opposition to Laudianism from the Puritans was rare. Many reluctantly accepted the reforms of the 1630s and waited for better times. Others simply chose to emigrate.

Religion: Conflict and dissent, 1625: The growth of religious non-conformity: Emigration

-It is estimated that 80,000 Puritans emigrated from England during the 1630s. Many settled in Ireland, the West Indies and the Dutch Republic, and around 20,000 settled in the American colony of Massachusetts. Whole families migrated together in search of the religious freedom that Laud’s policies denied them.

-With the breakdown of Charles’ authority after the religion-inspired rebellion of Presbyterian Scots in 1637, some Puritans began to return from overseas. When Charles recalled parliament in 1640, opposition to him among MPs was led by Puritans such as John Pym.

Religion: Conflict and dissent, 1625: Presbyterians and religious radicalism: Charles' policies towards Scotland

In 1625 Charles I became king of England and also king of Scotland, but he did not visit Scotland for his coronation until 1633. His elaborate coronation was not designed to win the support of the Scottish elite, who were predominantly Presbyterian and strongly opposed to Arminianism. During his visit to Scotland in 1633, Charles announced his intention to replace the Scottish Prayer Book so that there would be uniformity of religious practice in both England and Scotland. Scottish Presbyterians regarded this as a threat to their independence, and they prepared to resist Charles' policy.

Religion: Conflict and dissent, 1625: Presbyterians and religious radicalism: The Scottish Rebellion

On 23 July 1637 the Laudian Prayer Book was read for the first time in Scotland. It triggered widespread opposition across Scotland, known as the Scottish Rebellion. The aim of the Presbyterian Scots was to show Charles that he should withdraw it and cease his meddling in what they regarded as their area of influence. In 1638, 300,000 Scots signed the National Covenant in protest against Charles' actions. Charles was determined to crush the growing National Covenant movement that arose out of the Scottish Rebellion, but this merely escalated the revolt to become the Bishops' Wars, which some regard as the start of the British civil wars.

Religion: Conflict and dissent, 1625: Presbyterians and religious radicalism: Religious radicalism

The Scottish Rebellion weakened Charles’ authority over church and state and was a key factor leading to the outbreak of civil war in 1642. During and after the civil war, religious divisions multiplied, with the creation of a number of radical religious groups.

-Radical religious groups

Baptists believed in adult, rather than infant, baptism. They separated from the Church of England and preached that only those ‘born again’ through adult baptism would attain salvation.

-Ranters included a number of radical writers. They were not an organised group but they rejected all forms of organised religion, and even rejected the concept of sin.

-Millenarians believed that Jesus would soon return to earth and reign for 1,000 years.

-Fifth Monarchists were radical millenarians who, by 1650, had formed into a political grouping under Major-General Thomas Harrison.

Religion: Conflict and dissent, 1625: Presbyterians and religious radicalism: Quakerism

Quakerism was the most significant form of religious radicalism that developed in the 1650s. Quakerism was significant for two reasons:

• By the late 1650s the Quaker movement had grown to about 50,000 members.

• Before 1660 the Quaker movement was willing to take direct political action. The commitment to political action included a willingness to use violence if necessary to achieve their aims.

The development of Quakerism was linked to the New Model Army in that many Quakers had served in the army. Fear of the Quakers increased after 1658. As political order broke down following Cromwell’s death, Quaker numbers increased and their chief patron, the New Model Army General Lambert, became more influential. Restoration of the monarchy was seen by the political elite as a way of reimposing order and removing the threat of a military dictatorship under Lambert, based on Quaker support.

Religion: Conflict and dissent, 1625: The persecution of dissenters under Charles II and James II : Charles II: the religious persecutor

-Charles II's approach towards dissenters fluctuated, depending on how far they threatened religious order. He took strong action against dissent with the Conventicle Act and the Five Mile Act.

-Under the Conventicle Act of 1664, religious meetings of five people or more who were not in the Church of England were forbidden. The initial punishment of a fine could, on the third occasion, result in transportation. The Five Mile Act of 1665 meant that any preacher or teacher who refused the compulsory oaths of loyalty to the Church of England required by the Act of Uniformity could not go within five miles of any corporate town or parish where they had taught. In 1670 a second Conventicle Act, more draconian than the first, further limited meetings of religious gatherings not related to the Church of England. Charles even removed some Justices of the Peace who were judged too lenient in acting against conventicles.

Religion: Conflict and dissent, 1625: The persecution of dissenters under Charles II and James II : The role of the political elite in religious persecution

Charles II always intended to create a more comprehensive church. He did not seek to have the Conventicle Act renewed and it expired in 1668, allowing non-conformists to meet freely. Generally dissent was stronger in urban areas, where there was more likely to be a ruling elite with shared ideas or some sympathy for non-conformists. For some, non-conformity was a link to the recent Interregnum, where the New Model Army protected non-conformists from persecution. The majority of country gentry were against this greater freedom for dissenters.

Religion: Conflict and dissent, 1625: The persecution of dissenters under Charles II and James II : Quakers

Persecution of dissent under Charles II was harsh and became harsher the longer he ruled. The Quaker Act of 1662 required Quakers to take an oath of allegiance to the king. Quaker religious convictions prevented them from doing so, and they were thus subjected to increasingly intense persecution. Many Quakers were imprisoned, with over 400 dying during their confinement.

Religion: Conflict and dissent, 1625: The persecution of dissenters under Charles II and James II : James II

-James II was a strong supporter of religious toleration. He had promoted religious freedom in the American colonies and he helped his friend, the prominent Quaker William Penn, to establish the Quaker colony of Pennsylvania.

-James promoted toleration with the Declaration of Indulgence of 1687, which freed Catholics and Protestant non-conformists from their religious restrictions. Many Anglicans saw the declaration as a threat to the position of the Church of England, and did not carry out its terms. A second Declaration was issued in 1688, and James ordered it to be read in all churches. However, many dissenters did not trust James, believing that his real intention was to favour Catholics. The Declarations of Indulgence were to be one of the causes of the Glorious Revolution, the removal of the Catholic James II and his replacement by the Protestants William and Mary.

Religion: Conflict and dissent, 1625: The Catholic question: Catholic influence within Charles I's court

Anti-Catholic feeling increased in the 1630s. Laud’s reforms were regarded as taking the Church of England in the direction of Catholicism, and politicians were concerned at the role of Catholicism within Charles I’s court.

• Queen Henrietta Maria was an ardent Catholic, and openly attended mass at court. She exerted a strong influence on Charles and on many courtiers. Daily masses were held at Somerset House, which attracted large crowds of people.

• Catholicism became popular at court, with many members of the Privy Council identified as Catholics.

• The popular impression that the government was adopting a pro-Catholic line led to a widespread rumour that the Pope had offered to make Archbishop Laud a cardinal.

• Papal envoys visited Charles from 1634, and in 1637 George Con arrived in London as an official papal ambassador.

The increase in Catholic influence at court coincided with the period of Personal Rule, which further linked Catholicism with absolutism among many of the population.

Religion: Conflict and dissent, 1625: The Catholic question: The exclusion of Catholics from religious toleration

There was little active hostility towards Catholics during the republican period. Although anti-Catholic laws were not repealed, Cromwell did not carry out any persecution of Catholics. However, he used the general fear of Catholics to promote republican virtues. During the 1650s the Duke of Savoy used Catholic troops to carry out massacres of Protestants within his state. Cromwell made sure that these acts of butchery were widely reported in newspapers and pamphlets.

Religion: Conflict and dissent, 1625: The Catholic question: Anti-Catholic sentiment, 1660-88

-Anti-Catholic feeling became a constant theme during the reigns of Charles II and James II. Charles' Catholic wife, Catherine of Braganza, came to England with 30 Catholic priests, and helped to re-establish Catholic influence within the court.

-From the 1660s onwards the power of France and its absolutist ruler Louis XIV gradually increased, as Louis' many wars made France one of the leading states in Europe. Charles formed an alliance with Louis against the Protestant Dutch in 1670, which led to the Third Dutch War of 1672-74. Many MPs used the opportunity afforded by the war to attack Catholic influences at court. The Test Act of 1673, which excluded Catholics from military and civil offices, forced the Duke of York to resign his military command.

-Anti-Catholic feelings reached their height with the Popish Plot of 1678. Titus Oates, a former Jesuit, claimed to have uncovered a plot organised by the Jesuits to murder Charles, place his brother James on the throne and restore Catholicism in England. Over time Oates' accusations became more sensational, even implicating the queen and the Catholic Archbishop of Armagh. In 1681 opinion turned against Oates and he was imprisoned for sedition. Although the plot was a complete fabrication, the fact that it was widely believed showed how anti-Catholic feeling had spread to all classes of society.

Content: Theme 3: Social and intellectual challenge, 1625-88

-A ferment of ideas: radical political ideas, including the Levellers and the Diggers; the end of divine right monarchy and a confessional state; the significance of the ideas of Hobbes and Locke; the scientific revolution, including Francis Bacon and the

experimental method; the significance of the Royal Society.

Social and intellectual challenge, 1625-88: radical political ideas, including the Levellers and the Diggers: The Levellers

• The Levellers were a predominantly London-based pressure group that sought political, economic and social reform.

• They developed as a result of economic distress caused by the civil war.

• The Levellers attacked kingly authority and kingship from the beginning of the movement in 1646.

• The movement had little time for Charles I and wanted to replace kingship with a government dominated by a representative of the people.

• The leading figure in the movement was John Lilburne.

Social and intellectual challenge, 1625-88: radical political ideas, including the Levellers and the Diggers: The failure of the Levellers

-If the Levellers were to stand any chance of success they would need more support in the New Model Army. As division threatened the army, it held the Putney Debates in October 1647 to discuss with the Levellers their written constitution, the Agreement of the People, and particularly their ideas on the extension of the franchise.

-The short-term pragmatic alliance between the Levellers and the army leadership collapsed before the regicide. In March 1649 the leading Levellers, including Lilburne, were arrested. However, the Levellers continued their propaganda war against the Rump and the army. In the pamphlet, The Hunting of the Foxes (1649), Cromwell, in particular, was attacked. The Levellers’ Third Agreement was an attempt to inspire army mutiny. The response was limited and quickly crushed by Cromwell at Burford in May 1649.

It was not only the determination of the Rump and the army leadership to quell the Levellers that limited the movement, but also the fact that the Rump had money to pay the army. This prevented unrest among the troops and limited Leveller influence and the threat they posed.

-The failure of the Levellers was also rooted in their alienation of those towards the bottom of society through:

• social reforms being too limited

• economic reforms being too limited

• those without property not being included in plans for extension of the franchise.

Social and intellectual challenge, 1625-88: radical political ideas, including the Levellers and the Diggers: The Diggers

The Diggers were a reaction to the political upheavals of the years 1647 to 1649, as parliament struggled without success to negotiate a peaceful settlement with Charles I. They grew in importance after the king's execution in 1649. Led by Gerard Winstanley, the Diggers established a community outside London as a proposed solution to social inequalities. The ideas and actions of the Diggers offered a fundamental challenge to the nature of politics and society at the time, but their influence was limited. Unlike the Levellers, the Diggers believed in total social and political equality. They referred to themselves as the True Levellers.

Social and intellectual challenge, 1625-88: radical political ideas, including the Levellers and the Diggers: The failure of the Diggers

-The ultimate failure of the Diggers was due to the hostility of those who owned the land around their community at St George’s Hill. After a year of continued hostility the Digger community collapsed.

-Other Digger communities had been set up throughout England in Northamptonshire, Kent, Buckinghamshire, Hertfordshire, Middlesex, Bedfordshire, Leicestershire, Gloucestershire and Nottinghamshire, but none of them survived.

-Despite their immediate failure, the significance of the Diggers was the path they laid for future radicals, based on the following central ideas:

• Direct Action – the Diggers provided an example of taking action in politics rather than just relying on their ideas.

• Communism – in the establishment of their communes, the Diggers provided an example of Communism in action.

• Liberation theology – the ideas of the Diggers pre-figured radical Christian movements such as those in Latin America in the 1950s and 1960s led by Gustavo Gutierrez of Peru, Leonardo Boff of Brazil, and Jon Sobrino of Spain. This movement aimed to liberate people from poverty and injustice.

• Environmentalism – in living off nature in their communes, the Diggers can be seen as prefiguring the environmental movement.

Social and intellectual challenge, 1625-88: radical political ideas: Hobbes and Locke: the end of divine right monarchy and a confessional state: Thomas Hobbes

Born in 1588, Thomas Hobbes had been closely associated with Francis Bacon and, while travelling, met the Italian astronomer Galileo. Hobbes wrote about mathematics and science but he is best known for his philosophical works. Hobbes left England in 1640 and lived in Paris until 1652. In 1651 he produced his best known work, Leviathan. Hobbes’ work questioned the divine right of kings by arguing that the right to rule was not granted by God but through a social contract, unwritten or written. According to Hobbes, power was granted by the people, and monarchs could therefore be removed if they broke this contract. The final section of Leviathan was a justification of submission to England’s new republican regime. Hobbes argued that as Charles I could not protect the English people they were compelled to obey the new state. Furthermore, the new republican state had as much authority as monarchy. Hobbes also put forward the idea of absolute sovereignty whereby a state was legitimised if it could protect the people under its power.

Social and intellectual challenge, 1625-88: radical political ideas: Hobbes and Locke: the end of divine right monarchy and a confessional state: Restoration and the Glorious Revolution

-The Restoration saw the re-imposition of the monarchy and the idea of divine right monarchy and a confessional state. During the European Reformation and the Catholic Counter-Reformation many countries had become confessional states. They adopted either Catholicism or Protestantism as the state religion, and imposed it on the entire population. The Glorious Revolution of 1688 finally undermined divine right monarchy and the confessional state, as William III and Mary II agreed to rule in accordance with the laws of parliament.

-In religion, there was a broadening of comprehension that brought an end to the confessional Anglican Church which was reimposed at the Restoration. The Toleration Act of 1689 exempted dissenters from the penal laws if they took an oath of allegiance.

-Catholicism remained outlawed and England remains formally a Protestant country, with the monarch as head of state and also head of the Protestant state church

Social and intellectual challenge, 1625-88: radical political ideas: Hobbes and Locke: the end of divine right monarchy and a confessional state: John Locke

-John Locke spent much of the 1670s and 1680s on the Continent, only returning to England in 1689 after the Glorious Revolution. It was only at this point that Locke’s most famous work, Two Treatises of Government, was finally published, albeit anonymously.

-Although published after 1688, Locke’s Two Treatises of Government should be seen in the context of politics pre-1688 and fear of the growing power of Charles II and James II. It was written as an anti-absolutist response to Filmer’s Patriarcha (1680) which supported the divine right of kings.

Locke focused on the following in support of the argument for exclusion, and this was also used for resistance to the Catholic James II:

• Contractual theory of government – a contract was in place between the monarch and people to prevent absolutism.

• Equality of man – all men deserved to be treated equally, no matter their status.

• Popular sovereignty – power was held by the people.

• The law of nature – certain rights and values were inherently set by nature, meaning that a monarch could not be absolutist.

• Right of resistance – people had the right to resist a monarch acting tyrannically.

-Locke’s work produced little reaction at the time, and it only became more widely read in the eighteenth century. His theories acquired new significance and more readers as a result of America’s struggle for independence in the 1770s.

Social and intellectual challenge, 1625-88: The Scientific Revolution and the Royal Society: The Scientific Revolution

-The Renaissance focused on rediscovering the achievements of the ancient world. By the 1600s there was more focus on a scientific approach to knowledge, and the work of the astronomer Copernicus and anatomist Vesalius sparked a new period called the Scientific Revolution.

The following individuals were key to this scientific approach:

• Galileo (1564–1642) – Italian astronomer, physicist, engineer, philosopher and mathematician.

• William Harvey (1578–1657) – English physician who was the first to describe accurately how blood was pumped around the body by the heart. He published his findings in 1628.

• Robert Boyle (1627–91) – Natural philosopher, chemist, physicist and inventor.

• Robert Hooke (1635–1703) – Natural philosopher, inventor and architect. His Micrographia (1665), which contained fascinating pictures and instructions on how to use a microscope more effectively, encouraged more people to buy a microscope.

• Isaac Newton (1643–1727) – Physicist and mathematician who is still regarded as one of the most influential scientists of all time.

-The essential idea of the Scientific Revolution was that scientific knowledge builds upon itself. Therefore, knowledge and scientific understanding advance steadily and cumulatively to make possible new laws and inventions. From this, scientists like Francis Bacon (1561–1626) argued that ‘knowledge is power’.

Social and intellectual challenge, 1625-88: The Scientific Revolution and the Royal Society: Francis Bacon and the experimental method

Francis Bacon, through arguing that scientific knowledge should be based on observation, is often viewed as the founder of empiricism. Bacon argued that a sceptical and methodical approach should be adopted as part of scientific observation. Bacon’s lasting legacy is his approach to experimental method. He influenced leading scientists of the 1650s such as Thomas Browne (1605–82) and the founders of the Royal Society.

Social and intellectual challenge, 1625-88: The Scientific Revolution and the Royal Society: The significance of the Royal Society

-Historians have shown how important the 1640s and 1650s were in the history of science and its acceptance by intellectual society. There was a great deal of overlap, in terms of personalities and discussion of ideas, between the numerous informal meetings of scientists in the 1650s and the formal royal charter given to the Royal Society in 1662.

The Royal Society’s membership derived from the elite and professional class, indicating the acceptance of science among the political class. In order to attract members and funding, the meetings of the Society became a place for public demonstration of exciting science.

-The Society’s journal, Philosophical Transactions, which appeared in 1665, was the world’s first scientific journal. Owned by Henry Oldenburg, the Society’s first Secretary, it was designed to publicise discoveries and build support among the elite. Published monthly, it recorded new ideas and demonstrations and included letters from scientists around the world.

-The importance that was attached to science in the years 1660 to 1688 can be seen in the prominence of the key scientists of the period: Isaac Newton, Robert Boyle and Robert Hooke. Charles II’s amateur interest in science (he had studied mathematics and set up a chemical laboratory in his chambers at Whitehall) and his support for the Royal Society made an impression on fashionable society, even if they did not understand many of the new discoveries. That Newton is still so well known today reflects the scale of his achievements.

Content: Theme 4: Economy, trade and empire, 1625

-Agriculture: changes in agricultural techniques; the development of specialised farming and the growth of employment; capital investment in agriculture; the development of national markets.

-Changing domestic trade patterns: the changing cloth trade, including 'new draperies' and the impact of Protestant refugees; the growth of London and its impact on economic development; the growth of banking and insurance.

Economy, trade and empire, 1625-88: Agriculture: Changes in agricultural techniques

Population stagnation in the mid-seventeenth century drove some farmers to become more efficient by exploring new techniques, along with new crops that offered better profits. Improved agricultural techniques included:

• floating water meadows to enhance grazing – each year meadows were flooded with a few centimetres of water to protect the land from frosts and thus increase grass crops

• improved drainage

• better rotation of crops

• use of root crops such as potatoes, carrots and turnips

• improvements to farm equipment

• selective breeding of livestock

• an increase in the amount of land farmed

• more extensive use of manure

• more extensive use of fertilisers

• introduction of new ideas and techniques from the Netherlands.

-For example, the use of turnips as a fodder crop and clover as a new breed of grass helped overcome the shortage of fertilisers and animal manure. These two crops could be stored for winter animal feed, and their introduction in East Anglia turned areas of heath and chalk into land suitable for grain. These changes enabled farmers to maintain large numbers of animals throughout the year.

-From 1670, as a result of changes in agriculture, England ceased to be a net importer of grain and became an exporter.

Economy, trade and empire, 1625-88: Agriculture: Specialised farming

-The growth of urban employment required the development of specialised farming to increase production with less farm labour.

-The development of specialised farming through enclosure, the growth of a wider range of crops, the establishment of larger, more commercial farms and the use of new techniques, particularly from the Netherlands, did not happen on a systematic basis. There was no agricultural revolution in the 1600s, but the agrarian economy became more efficient.

The growth of London increased demand and spurred a more specialised regional farming and commercialisation that helped develop a national market.

-Regional specialisation was part of an emerging national market and was linked to the geography and climate of England. In general, the north and west (highland) focused on pastoral farming whereas the south and east (lowland) focused on arable farming. Within this, however, there was further specialisation based on local climate or soil. For example, north-west Norfolk was arable while the south-east was wood pasture.

Economy, trade and empire, 1625-88: Agriculture: Capital investment in agriculture

-Early in the seventeenth century, the population rise and consequent surplus labour meant that landowners could increase productivity through deployment of additional labour. Extra demand for food resources also made farming more profitable for landowners. However, population stagnation after 1656 reduced the size of the labour market and led to a general rise in wages. Consequently, landowners looked at better exploitation of existing land through capital investment in order to increase productivity. In many parts of Britain woodlands were cleared and converted to pasture. The most extensive land clearance took place in the fenlands of East Anglia, where 4,000 Dutch drainage experts were employed to bring the land under cultivation.

Economy, trade and empire, 1625-88: Agriculture: The development of national markets

-In 1625 Britain had not established a single national economy. Difficulties with communications, coupled with the absence of strong commercial enterprises, meant that regional economic activity was centred around market towns where local produce and livestock were bought and sold. Industrial activity was also regional, linked to areas where raw materials were easily accessible. Manufacturing of goods was not carried out in factories, but in houses or outbuildings in rural areas.

It was only gradually, over the years 1625 to 1688, that a broader, more national economy and market emerged. By 1688 this development had been facilitated in the following ways:

• Better communication – the navigability of many rivers was improved, allowing for the speedier movement of goods.

• Specialisation – as communication improved many regions developed local specialities. Wiltshire, for example, became a centre for cheese making, and its products were sold throughout Britain.

• Finance – As a national economy began to take shape, a more sophisticated financial structure began to emerge with the development of banks and other financial institutions.

• Urban development – In 1625 goods could only be bought from the markets in different towns. By 1688 shops had sprung up throughout the country, offering a wide range of goods to supply a growing consumer market.

However, the creation of a national market and a unified economy was essentially limited to England and Wales. Scotland did not gain a share in the new markets. Her agricultural land was not as productive as England’s, and transport links between England and Scotland were not well developed. Additionally, most English politicians showed no interest in Ireland at all. Ireland had a separate culture based on language and religion, and so the country was treated more as a colonial possession than as an equal with England and Scotland.

Economy, trade and empire, 1625-88: Changing domestic trade patterns: the changing cloth trade

Textiles, or the cloth trade, was by far the largest manufacturing concern, employing approximately 200,000 workers, predominantly in the south-west, the Pennines and East Anglia. The cloth trade had both a national and an international market. One reason for the prominence of the cloth trade was that the whole sequence of manufacture could be split up into separate processes. This led to a greater division of labour, which lowered costs and raised productivity. It also fitted with family structure, with all members having specified roles. Throughout this period the textile industry spread outside the initial centres of Norwich and Colchester and became established in Manchester and the north-west of England.

Economy, trade and empire, 1625-88: Changing domestic trade patterns: The changing 'new draperies' and the impact of Protestant refugees

The staple of the English textile trade before the mid-sixteenth century was woollen broadcloth, known as the 'old draperies'. The 'new draperies', introduced in the 1560s by Dutch immigrants, were lighter than the old wool-based materials. The new draperies revived the English textile market. Norwich and Colchester had strong trading links with the Netherlands. Dutch trade helped to establish East Anglia as a major centre for the new draperies.

Louis XIV revoked the protection given to Protestants in France under the Edict of Nantes. In doing so he signalled that he would start to persecute French Protestants. From the 1650s a growing number of Dutch and French Protestants migrated to England to avoid religious persecution. These skilled workers helped in the development of lighter fabrics, including silk, which was blended with English wool. The introduction of the smaller Dutch loom also helped develop the new draperies. This allowed the production of more delicate items, precisely at the time when Italian and French fashions that were more intricate were becoming more popular.

Economy, trade and empire, 1625-88: Changing domestic trade patterns: The growth of London and its impact on economic development

The growth of London was one of the major developments of the early modern period. In 1550 London was still essentially a medieval city with a population of 120,000 people. By 1700 London had developed into a metropolitan centre with close to 500,000 inhabitants. London’s sheer size meant that it dominated Britain’s economy and culture. The next-largest towns, Norwich, Bristol and Newcastle, each had about 20,000 inhabitants. While these towns also grew, Norwich, despite being the second-largest city, had only 30,000 inhabitants by 1688.

Reasons for London’s growth

• Deaths outnumbered births in London; therefore migration was the principal reason behind London’s population increase.

• London attracted a great number of servants and apprentices.

• Poverty in the countryside encouraged migrants to head to London from all parts of Britain in the hope of finding employment.

Economy, trade and empire, 1625-88: Changing domestic trade patterns: Impact on economic development

The expanding population and growth of London stimulated agricultural trade. Urban growth created a surge in agricultural productivity. London's food needs were supplied by a large number of farms, often many miles from the capital. Other goods were supplied by the river trade and, from the 1660s, the new turnpike roads. The coastal trade allowed for goods to come from farther afield, such as coal from Newcastle.

The development of a banking and financial system later in the century further secured London's dominant position in the economic, social, cultural and political life of Britain. Goods passed through London's docks for redirection to other parts of the country. London's development also saw a shift in economic power. Until the 1660s most private wealth was accrued through the ownership of land. By 1688 the growth of banking and financial institutions had created a new class of rich entrepreneurs.

Economy, trade and empire, 1625-88: Changing domestic trade patterns: The growth of banking and insurance

This period witnessed the emergence of a more sophisticated system of banking and insurance. Business and commerce needed a credit system that was flexible. The development of credit came from Bills of Exchange that were given in lieu of payment, with interest charged depending on time of repayment. Over time, with the expansion of London and its trade, Bills of Exchange were used to pay off debts instead of cash. From this developed a banking system, as London merchants and goldsmiths accepted the Bills and offered credit to businessmen and others by opening accounts for the deposit or withdrawal of cash. Other provincial centres soon followed suit, leading to the establishment of a national banking system.

There were two forms of banking: private, and business and insurance.

Private banking

This was very limited in the early seventeenth century. There were no private banks outside London and even in London they were only starting to develop by 1688. Family and friends were the source of finance for most people in need, rather than private banking. Private banking developed as a result of the development of business and insurance banking.

Banking services proved invaluable in helping to finance wars and conflicts overseas, especially the Anglo-Dutch wars of the 1660s and 1670s.

Business and insurance

England’s emergence as one of the world’s leading trading countries further stimulated the banking and insurance sectors. English ships that carried goods all around the world were insured by English banks or by specialist insurance companies. Property insurance also developed, particularly after the Great Fire of London. Other forms of insurance developed after 1660, notably fire insurance. Another development was the increase in joint stock companies as British overseas trade expanded. Coffee houses became places where financiers could obtain news about, and deal in, shares and government bonds. The insurance business further reinforced the importance of London in the national economy.

Economy, trade and empire, 1625-88: Changing domestic trade patterns: Business and insurance

England’s emergence as one of the world’s leading trading countries further stimulated the banking and insurance sectors. English ships that carried goods all around the world were insured by English banks or by specialist insurance companies. Property insurance also developed, particularly after the Great Fire of London. Other forms of insurance developed after 1660, notably fire insurance. Another development was the increase in joint stock companies as British overseas trade expanded. Coffee houses became places where financiers could obtain news about, and deal in, shares and government bonds. The insurance business further reinforced the importance of London in the national economy.

Economy, trade and empire, 1625-88: Changing domestic trade patterns: Private banking

This was very limited in the early seventeenth century. There were no private banks outside London and even in London they were only starting to develop by 1688. Family and friends were the source of finance for most people in need, rather than private banking. Private banking developed as a result of the development of business and insurance banking.

Banking services proved invaluable in helping to finance wars and conflicts overseas, especially the Anglo-Dutch wars of the 1660s and 1670s.

Essay plans

radical ideas of the 17th century had little significant impact

para on challanges to confessional state and divine right

locke

political change in society - role of the army, nature of the leader, religion playing a part in politics

Identifying the concept

-Cause – questions concern the reasons for something, or why something happened

-Consequence – questions concern the impact of an event, an action or a policy

-Change/continuity – questions ask you to investigate the extent to which things changed or stayed the same

-Similarity/difference – questions ask you to investigate the extent to which two events, actions or policies were similar

-Significance – questions concern the importance of an event, an action or a policy.