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Thales (early ontology)
ultimate reality is water
Anaximander (early ontology)
ultimate reality is an “indefinite”, “unlimited”, “primordial stuff”, which is unlike anything we can experience but gives rise to the things in the world
Anaximenes (early ontology)
ultimate reality is air
Heraclitus (early ontology)
ultimate reality is change or flux as represented by fire
Democritus (early ontology)
ultimate reality is composed of “bits” of stuff called atoms
Plato (early ontology)
ultimate reality is an immaterial realm of forms
Aristotle (early ontology)
ultimate reality is matter which is composed of the elements earth, water, air, and fire
Plato’s theory of forms
ultimate reality is the world of forms
forms are the ideal representation of something
forms really exist (i.e. they have ontological status)
forms are Plato’s substance
forms are eternal and unchanging
forms give things in the world of becoming their identity
Plato’s soul
he believed that humans have an immortal soul that could be separated from the body
nativism
knowledge about the truth of reality exists in the soul at its inception
Aristotle’s Substance
ordinary objects of everyday experience - individual things referred to by a noun, e.g., my dog Buddy
substance consists of matter and form
Matter - the stuff of which something is made
form - makes an object the kind of thing it is; form is that which realizes the potential of matter
Boat (the substance) is not just its matter; it is matter realized in a particular way by form
unlike Plato, matter and form are inseparable
Aristotle on Soul
all living things- plants, animals, and humans - have souls
the Peripatetic Axiom
“there is nothing in the mind that was not first in the senses” (Thomas Aquinas)
A priori
rationalism - not dependent on experience
A posteriori
empiricism - dependent on experience
Arguments for why studying history is important:
The mistakes argument: A consequence of ignorance of history is repetition of the mistakes of history
Why is studying history important?
it informs our understanding of the present; knowledge of the history of such debates will shape your perception and understanding of modern psychology
Reasons for psychology’s interest in its history
psychology is still in its infancy
the field is still grappling with many of the same topics that occupied it a century ago
it can provide some unity for what had become a diverse and highly specialized field
an understanding of psychology;s history makes one a more critical thinker
Personalistic theory
the “great man” theory
emphasizes the contributions of individual people
historical biographies and eponyms reflect this view
the important events in history result from the heroic (or evil) actions of individuals, and without these individuals, history would be vastly different
Eponym
when historical periods are identified with reference to the individuals whose actions are believed to be critical in shaping events (Newtonian physics, Darwinism, Freudian psychology)
Naturalistic theory
such determinants include social, moral, political, economic, and intellectual forces that characterize a time and place
emphasizes the overall intellectual and cultural climate of a particular historical era -- what the German philosopher Hegel called the zeitgeist
Zeitgeist
determinants such as social, moral, political, economic, and intellectual forces that characterize a time and place
used in naturalistic theory
Multiples (Naturalistic Theory)
evidence for influence of the Zeitgeist
two or more individuals independently make the same discovery at about the same time
Darwin and Wallace codiscovering natural selection
Internalism
focuses on events immediately and directly related to some historical developement
tends to be more personalistic oriented
focuses on the development of ideas or the progression of research to the exclusion of the larger world
Externalism
consideres influences outside psychology that also influence the discipline
focus is on events more remote to some historical development
context is the essence of externalism
tends to be more naturalistic oriented
examine societal, economic, institutional, and extra-disciplinary influences
Diahcronic
focuses on how an event evolved through time
enables hypotheses of how antecedents influenced the event
can be internal or external or both
can be personalistic or naturalistic or both
Synchronic
Concerned with something as it exists in a particular point in time (synchronic means “at the same time”)
not concerned with how things develop to that point
strives not to let knowledge of what happened before or after to intrude
useful in avoiding bad forms of presentism
tends to be strongly external and naturalistic
Presentism
good form: use of historical knowledge to inform understanding of the present
bad form: allowing present knowledge, values, and beliefs to bias interpretation of the past
presentism produces anachronism
particularly frowned upon when it involved ethical judgements about past actions
anachronism
something that is out of place in time (EX: cave men riding dinosaurs)
Historicism
the antidote for presentism
tries to understand the an event in terms to the knowledge and values in existence at the time (zeitgeist)of the event
external and synchronic
original myths
stories overemphasizing the importance of particular events in psychology’s history
purpose: to highlight the contrast between what is said to be a prescientific approach to some psychological phenomenon and the mergence of a more scientific strategy
Naturalism
all that exists is in the natural world; nothing exists that is supernatural (no God or other supernatural beings; no eternal soul); mind is a natural phenomenon
materialism
matter is the only substance; psychological phenomena are material entities or properties of the material entities
physicalism
everything is wholly constituted of and completely determined by physical phenomena; entails" “causal closure of physics”; there is no such thing as a mental causation
Redutionism
based on atomism - there is a base level of reality composed of fundamental particles; everything else is an aggregate of fundamental properties
idea that complex phenomena (aggregates) can be wholly explained by (reduced to) the properties of their component parts; mental phenomena can be totally explained by biological phenomana
Holism
(the antonym of atomism/reductionism)
aggregates have properties not possessed by components out of complexity, new things such as life and mind, come into existence (emergentism)
Determinism
everything has a cause
every thought, every feeling, every action is -- in principle -- completely predictable
there is no free will
the idea of personal responsibility is nonsense
Deductive reasoning
reasoning from general premises to particular conclusions
If A then B (premise 1)
A (premise 2)
Therefore B (conclusion)
Inductive reasoning
reasoning from particular observations to a general conclusion
Observations (premise): I have observed 1,000 dogs and every dog had fleas
Conclusion: all dogs have fleas
Used to formulate general scientific laws
Problem of Inductive Reasoning
the conclusion exceeds the content of the premise; the truth of the premise does not guarantee the truth of the conclusion
not genuinely universal; they always involve a leap of faith
Issue of Deductive Reasoning
a deductive argument can be valid and the conclusion also if one or more of the premises is false
Hypothetico-deductive Model
Step 1: Formulate hypothesis (by intuition or induction)
Step 2: Deduce a testable (potentially falsifiable) consequence of the hypothesis
Step 3: Gather data by observation or experimentation (empiricism) to test the hypothesis
Step 4: confirm or refute the hypothesis
Characteristics of Mature Science
Normal Science and Scientific Revolution
paradigms
Characteristics of immature science
pre-paradigmatic; there is a lack of consensus on fundamental issues
characterized by “schools” not paradigms - school: one of multiple competing visions of the nature, subject, and methodology of scientific discipline
science progress is difficult to gauge bc knowledge changes qualitatively, “laterally”; growth by he addition of new schools
Psychology is pre-paradigmatic
Normal Science
paradigm driven (set of shared beliefs)
defines fundamental nature of the thing studied
defines questions that are legitimate to ask
defines methods
aimed at confirming and extending paradigm
progress is like “puzzle solving”
cumulative growth of knowledge
continuity of knowledge and concepts
troublesome anomalies are ignored or explained away
Scientific Revolution
Anomalies become so serious that scientists begin to question the paradigm
paradigm shift
discontinuous growth of knowledge
Boring’s famous book “A History of Experimental Psychology”
Boring was under the impression that Titchener basically imported Wundt’s brand of experimental psychology, structuralism, to America, when in fact, Wundt’s systemm was quite different from Titchner’s system. So in his book, the distinctions were lost and since most physchologists trained in the 50s-80s learned their history through this book, the mythological identification of Wundt’s and Titchner’s systems became conventional wisdom.
Winston Churchills interpretation problem
descisions about selection and about writing history both involve interpreting info, and those interpretations are influenced by the individual characteristics of the historian and by the features of the historical context in which the historian is writing.
Historians will be influenced by their preconceptions, by the amount of knowledge they already have, as well as by the theories they hold about the nature of history (e.g. personalistic vs naturalistic emphasis)
Goddard and presentism
Goddard firmly believed that intelligence was an inherited trait and that it could be measured with a brand new technology - IQ test
his work contributed to the deportation of untold numbers people
to understand his behavior, it is necessary to study it from the vantage point of the historical period in which it occurred instead of that of today
although the past can help us understand the present, our knowledge about the present should not be used to judge the past
What are the branches of Philosophy
metaphysics, epistemology, logic and linguistics, and axiology
Rationalism
not dependent on experience; A priori
rationalists uses intuition and deduction to determine what is true
Empiricism
Dependent on experience; A posteriori
Who were the rationalist philosophers?
Descartes, Leibnitz, and Kant
“The hard problem of consciousness”
conscious experience has a quality; it is like something to the person having the experience
the hard problem is physical characterization of qualia; inability to do this, despite centuries of effort, is an argument against physicalism
Qualia
properties of experience; conscious experience has a quality; it is like something to the person having the experience
The Mary thought experiment
Mary learns all of the physical truths about color perception in a black and white world
mary sees a red object for the first time
mary discovers something new about color perception: what it is like to have the experience red
Descartes, continuity of self
self=mind=soul
the self, is the mind, is the soul
Self/Mind/Suul is an immortal substance that is created and maintained in existence by God
Descarte’s Views
rationalist, realist, mind/body dualist
Locke, core principle of empiricism
the peripatetic axiom: all knowledge comes from sensations; the mind in its original state is like “white paper void of all characters without any ideas”
Locke’s Views
empiricist, realist, mind/body dualist
Compatibilism (Locke)
willing vs doing
the will is a power possessed by the mind to order the motion or rest of one’s body and the power to order the consideration or non-consideration of an idea
the will is determined by that which will produce pleasure and avoid pain
the actual “doing” is volition
we are free to do or not to do what the will directs
locke does not believe in free will, but he believes in freedom
British Empricism
the core principle of this is the peripatetic axiom: all knowledge comes from sensations; the mind in its original state is like “white paper void of all characters without any ideas”
Leibniz views
rationalist, idealist, monist
Leibnitz parallelism
pre-programming of monads (elemental (invisible) substances created by God) by God is responsible for harmony between the apparent material and mental world
Monads
elemental (invisible) substances created by God
they have no extension
they are mental entities capable of perception
they are capable of change but not by natural forces
Everything is made of compounds of monads; everything has a mental capacity
Leibniz is a panpsychist
he believes everything has a mental capacity since it is made of monads
Berkely views
empiricist, idealist, and monist
Monist
believed in a multiplicity of mental “substances”
Berkely - subjective idealism
there is no mind-independent external material reality
primary qualities of objects (locke)
mind-independent properties of the object, e.g., extension, solidity, figure, movement
produce ideas that resemble objects
secondary qualities of objects (locke)
mind-dependent properties
produced in the perceiver by the objects, but do not resemble objects, e.g., color, smell, taste
Berkely on primary qualities of objects vs secondary
primary qualities of objects such as extension, solidity, form, movement, are mere ideas, they are mind-dependent
we have no reason to believe that anything external to the mind exists
All reality exists in perception (secondary)
Solipsism
the doctrine that only one mind exists (God’s)
subjective idealism is instrisically this
Berkely on solipsism
he tried to avoid the problem of solipsism by arguing that everything, including other minds, is held in existence by the mind of God
David Hume + importance
empiricist + his account of mind and his epistemology
Hume’s liveliness hypothesis
impressions are “lively” or “vivid”, ideas are “faint”
Hume’s elements of mind
raw elements of mind are not ideas but impressions, which include sensations, passions, and emotions as they make their first appearance in the soul
Hume’s Fork
the only justifiable beliefs are:
Relation of ideas (a priori)
discoverable by the mere operation of thought
propositions of deductive logic or math
propositions that are true in themselves, e.g., 2+2=4 or “All bachelors are unmarried”
Matters of fact (a posteriori)
statements about the way the world is
truth is based on experience (sense data)
EX a man finding a watch on a deserted island concluded that there is or has been someone else on the island
All matters of fact rest on other matters of fact
All matters of fact rest on the notion of causation
David Hartley + contributions
empiricist, realist and a mind/body dualist
contributions:
psychophysical approach
elaboration of associationism
Hartley principles of associationism
Contiguity
synchronous (spatial)
Successive (temporal)
How did Hartley expand the concept of associationism
he used the idea to explain a learned reflex
described how an infants grasping reflex to a finger placed in its palm becomes associated with and conditioned to a variety of stimuli, e.g., the word “grasp”
modifiable association by contiguity becomes the core mechanism of learning in behavioral psychology
he extended the concept of association to higher level mental constructs, e.g. beauty, honor, loyalty
John Stuart Mill
empiricist and associationist
Mill - Homeopathic causation
two causes operating conjointly have a combined effect that is equal to the algebraic sum of their separate effects
the laws that govern the effect of causes are the same when they are combines as when they are separate
each cause produces the exact same effect when in combination as when alone
the effects produced by the combined causes are completely predictable and explainable from a knowledge of the propertied of the separate agents
effects produced by homeopathic causation are called resultants
resultants
effects produced by homeopathic causation
Mill - Heteropathic causation
the effects of 2 causes acting in combo are not the sum of their individual effects
the laws that govern the effect of causes are different when they are combined (new laws emerge)
the effects produced by the combines agents are not predictable a priori or explainable from a knowledge of the properties of the separate causes
effects produced by heteropathic causation are called emergents
Emergents
effects produced by heteropathic causation
Emergentism
(AKA holism): life and mind are emergents
Immanuel Kant
materialism and idealism; and rationalism and empiricism
absolutist: there is one world, one science, one reality, one truth
Kant - Contingent Truth
something is true that could have been false
it is true, but it doesn’t have to be true
“all the coins in my pocket are silver colored”
there is no necessary requirement that coins in my pocket must be silver
not genuinely universal
coins in my pocket past and future and coins in other pockets need not be silver
Kant - Necessary Truth
it must be true; it is inconceivable that it is false
genuinely universal; it is true at all times and places
EX: all bachelors are unmarried, the sum of the interior angles of a triangle equals 180º
Kant - Analytic knowledge claim
propositions that are true because of the word meanings
“all bachelors are unmarried”
Kant - Synthetic knowledge claim
ampliative propositions
“all dogs have fleas”
Kant - A priori knowledge claim
Not empirical (independent of experience)
“all bachelors are unmarried”
Kant - A posteriori knowledge claim
Empirical (dependent on experience)
“all dogs have fleas”
Kant - phenomena
objects that exist in relation to mind
Kant - noumena
objects that exist independently of mind
Importance of Kant to psychology
with kant, matter is real but our knowledge of it us a construction of mind by a priori ideas
After kant, the question becomes: what are the rules that govern this construction?
He had powerful influence on early psychologists (William James)
Arguably, modern psych - particularly cognitive psych - is Kantian
Kant - a priori rules
he wondered how experience itself was possible, and he concluded that it required the existence of a priori (prior to experience) knowledge that helps shape the experiences we have
the a priori concepts are human universals; they are common to all people, in all places, at all times
cause and effect were considered by Kant to be innate properties of the mind
Kant’s view of psychology (book)
Kant argued that psychology could never become a science like the physical sciences because mental phenomena could not be observed directly by an independent observer, nor could they be defined or measured with the precision of mathematics.
Epistemology
the study of human knowledge and its acquisition