LAB EXAM #2

ATP

adenosine triphosphate: cellular “energy currency”, driving energy requiring processes such as membrane transport, protein synthesis, growth, and movement

glycolysis

6-carbon glucose molecule (C₆H₁₂O₆) is split into two 3-carbon pyruvate molecules through a series of reactions that occur in the cytosol

processes in aerobic respiration

pyruvate oxidation, Krebs cycle, and the electron transport chain

fermentation

chemical energy that is harvested without using O₂ or any electron transport chain; includes glycolysis and the reactions that regenerate NAD⁺ is reused to oxidize sugar via glycolysis, netting 2 ATP via substrate level phosphorylation

positive control for fermentation lab

1 teaspoon glucose

negative control for fermentation lab

no substrate

test substrate for fermentation lab

1 teaspoon assigned substrate

fermentation rate

final corrected height - initial corrected height / total time of fermentation (mm/min)

alcohol fermentation

glucose —> pyruvate —> 2 ethanol

gas being measured in fermentation lab

CO₂

dependent variable of fermentation lab

amount of CO₂ released

independent variable of fermentation lab

time

standardized variable of fermentation lab

amount of water and control/substrate added to each bag

test substrates for fermentation lab

corn starch, sucrose, maltose, fructose, stevia, and splenda

photosynthesis

the process by which plants use light energy to make carbohydrate from CO₂

location of photosynthesis

chloroplast

dependent variable in photosynthesis lab

CO₂ and O₂ (y-axis)

independent variable in photosynthesis lab

time (x-axis)

standardized variable in photosynthesis lab

spinach leaves

calculating Rf

R_f = distance pigment traveled / distance solvent traveled

cell division

interphase and division phase (M phase)

prophase

• chromatin condenses forming chromosomes

• Chromosomes consist of 2 chromatids joined at centromere

• Nuclear membrane disappears; nucleolus disappears

• Centrioles move to opposite poles

  • Mitotic spindle forms

metaphase

Chromosomes align at equator

anaphase

Chromatids separate at centromere and are pulled to opposite pole by spindle fibers

telophase

• Chromosome movement stops

• Chromosomes uncoil forming chromatin

• Nuclear membrane reforms

• Nucleolus reappears

• Spindle fibers disappear

cytokinesis

• Animal cells: formation of cleavage furrow by microfilaments

• Plant cells: formation of cell plate

normal cells

• sensitive to the cell culture conditions and demand specialized treatments and media

• only divide a few times before being arrested

• divide until they are in contact with neighboring cells - monolayer

cancer cells

• loss of normal cell structures

• changes in shape

• changes in nucleus

• typically lose contact inhibition, causing them to pile up and form tumors

• large number of dividing cells

• loss of monolayers

• decreased cell-cell junctions

• disorganized arrangement of cells

M phase

cell division —> spindle fiber checkpoint

G1 checkpoint

Gap 1, growth —> cell size, nutrients, DNA damage

G0 checkpoint

Gap 0, extended resting phase (interphase)

S phase checkpoint

DNA synthesis —> DNA damage & replication

G2 checkpoint

Gap 2, growth —> metabolic activity, growth, preparation to divide

proto-oncogene

a group of genes which code for proteins that regulate cell growth and division

oncogene

the conversion of a proto-oncogene; more active and repeatedly signals for the cell to divide

tumor suppressor

inhibits cell growth and prevent tumor formation

biomarker

based test detects early cancer activity based on the presence of levels of specific proteins that serve as early indicators of cancer progression or recurrence

blood type A

antigen A, serum antibodies anti-B

blood type B

antigen B, serum antibodies anti-A

blood type AB

both A and B antigens, serum antibodies neither

blood type O

neither A or B antigens, both anti-A and anti-B antibodies

sexual reproduction

the offspring inherits genetic information from both parents; brings genetic variation in the offspring and are different genetically from both their parents and their siblings

prophase I

• chromosomes will condense and thicken

• Homologous chromosomes synapse

• Tetrads are formed - all four chromatids will align 

• Crossing over occurs

metaphase I

The tetrads are aligned on the equatorial plane of the cell; independent assortment

anaphase I

homologous pairs are separated; segregation

telophase I

• The nuclear envelope and nucleoli reform

• Spindle fibers will disappear

• Cytoplasm will divide by cytokinesis

prophase II

• Chromosomes will shorten and thicken 

• Centrioles will move to opposite sides of the cell

• Nuclear membrane and the nucleoli will disappear 

• Spindle fibers will form

metaphase II

• Chromatid pairs will line up along the equatorial plane

• Spindle fibers will be attached at the centromeres

anaphase II

• Centromere joining the pairs of sister chromatids will split

• Individual chromatids will be pulled to the opposite poles by the spindle fibers

telophase II

• The spindle fibers will break down 

• Nuclear membrane and nucleoli will reform 

• The chromosomes will uncoil

diploid

cells containing pairs of homologous chromosomes

haploid

only one member of each pair

zygote

male gamete and female gamete fertilized

gamete

haploid cells; sperm and egg

homologous chromosome

paired chromosomes that have the same gene sequence

chromatid

one of the two identical halves of a chromosome that has been replicated in preparation for cell division

replication

the process by which the genome’s DNA is copied in cells

synapsis

homologous chromosomes pairing

crossing over

a section of one chromatid breaks and is exchanged with the exact same section on a non-sister chromatid

tetrad

a group of four closely associated chromatids of a homologous pair formed by synapsis

independent assortment

the alleles of two different genes get sorted into gametes independently of one another

segregation

the separation of homologous chromosomes

centromere

holds together the two chromatids

cytokinesis

cytoplasm divides into two daughter cells

gene

the basic physical and functional unit of heredity

allele

one of two or more version of DNA sequence at a given genomic location

genotype

the genetic makeup of an organism

phenotype

an individual’s observable traits

homozygous

having inherited the same versions of a genomic marker from each biological parent

heterozygous

different alleles for a particular trait

dominant

when an allele of a gene overrides the other allele

recessive

the “masked” allele

P generation

parental generation; the original pair of parents at the start of genetic cross experiment

F1 generation

the first generation of offspring produced by a set of parents

F2 generation

the results of a cross between two F1 individuals

test cross

a genetic cross between a homozygous recessive individuals and a corresponding suspected heterozygote to determine the genotype of the latter