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What is learning according to the lecture notes?
A systematic, relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs through experience.
What are the three basic types of learning identified in the notes?
Classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and social learning.
Who is known as the founder of classical conditioning?
Ivan Pavlov.
What is classical conditioning?
A type of learning in which one stimulus acquires the capacity to evoke a response that was originally evoked by another stimulus.
What does the term 'unconditioned stimulus' (US) refer to in classical conditioning?
A stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response without prior learning.
What is the role of the neutral stimulus (NS) in classical conditioning?
A stimulus that initially produces no specific response until it is paired with the unconditioned stimulus.
Define acquisition in the context of classical conditioning.
The initial learning of the association between the neutral stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus.
What does extinction mean in classical conditioning?
The decline of the conditioned response (CR) when the unconditioned stimulus (US) is no longer presented.
What is spontaneus recovery in classical conditioning?
The reappearance of a previously extinguished response after a rest period.
What is the difference between generalization and discrimination in classical conditioning?
Generalization is responding to new stimuli similar to the original stimulus, while discrimination is learning to respond differently to similar stimuli.
What principle does operant conditioning rely on?
The principle of reinforcement, which states that organisms tend to repeat those responses that are followed by favorable consequences.
What are the two main types of reinforcement?
Positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement.
What is shaping in operant conditioning?
The reinforcement of closer and closer approximations of a desired response.
What are the four specific reinforcement schedules mentioned?
Fixed ratio, variable ratio, fixed interval, and variable interval.
Define positive punishment.
Adding something unpleasant in order to decrease the probability a behavior will be exhibited in the future.
What is vicarious learning?
Learning that occurs through the observation of the consequences of a behavior performed by others.
What role do mirror neurons play in learning?
They are activated when one either performs or observes a behavior, thought to underlie empathy.
What is the concept of learned helplessness?
The absence of any attempt to help oneself that results from previously learning that such attempts are useless.
What did Tolman's rat research demonstrate?
The existence of cognitive maps and latent learning.
What is an 'aha' moment?
A perception of a solution to a problem that results from cognitive understanding rather than from trial and error.
What is operant conditioning?
A type of learning in which behavior is modified by its consequences, including reinforcements and punishments.
Describe positive reinforcement.
A process where a behavior is increased by presenting a favorable outcome or reward after the desired behavior is exhibited.
What is negative reinforcement?
A process that involves the removal of an unfavorable outcome or stimulus, which encourages the desired behavior.
What does a fixed ratio schedule mean?
A reinforcement schedule where a response is reinforced only after a specified number of responses.
What is a variable interval schedule?
A reinforcement schedule in which a response is rewarded after an unpredictable amount of time has passed.
What is the role of observation in social learning?
Observation allows individuals to learn new behaviors by watching others and the consequences they face.
Define cognitive map in the context of learning.
A mental representation of one's physical environment, allowing for navigation and understanding of the space.
What is the difference between explicit and implicit learning?
Explicit learning involves conscious awareness of what is being learned, while implicit learning occurs without conscious awareness.
What is the significance of reinforcement in behavior modification?
Reinforcement increases the likelihood of a behavior being repeated by providing rewards or removing negative stimuli.
Explain the difference between conditioned and unconditioned responses.
Conditioned responses are learned responses to a previously neutral stimulus, while unconditioned responses are naturally occurring reactions.
What is negative punishment?
The removal of a stimulus to decrease the likelihood of a behavior being repeated.
Explain the concept of reinforcement schedules.
Reinforcement schedules are rules that determine how and when a behavior will be reinforced.
What is the difference between reinforcement and punishment?
Reinforcement increases the likelihood of a behavior, while punishment decreases it.
What is observational learning?
Learning that occurs by watching others and modeling their behaviors.
What is the concept of desensitization in learning?
The process where repeated exposure to a stimulus reduces the emotional response to that stimulus.
How does context influence learning?
The environment or situation in which learning occurs can impact the effectiveness and retention of learned material.
What are intrinsic and extrinsic motivations in learning?
Intrinsic motivation arises from internal satisfaction, while extrinsic motivation comes from external rewards or pressures.
Define operant extinction.
The process through which a behavior stops occurring when it is no longer reinforced.
What is the role of feedback in the learning process?
Feedback helps learners understand the results of their actions, guiding them toward better outcomes.
What is the significance of trial and error in learning?
Trial and error is a problem-solving method involving repeated attempts until success is achieved.
