A&P2 CH. 23 PT. 2

Inverse

The relationship between pressure and volume is ________

Boyle’s law

P= k/V

Higher; lower

Air flows from ______ to ______ pressure

Spirometry

The process of measuring volumes of air that move into and out of the respiratory system

Spirometer

The device used to measure these pulmonary volumes of air that move into and out of the respiratory system

1) tidal volume
2) inspiratory reserve volume
3) expiratory reserve volume
4) residual volume

4 different pulmonary volumes measured in spirometry

Tidal volume

The normal volume of air inspired and experience with each breath

Inspiratory reserve volume

The amount of air that can be inspired forcefully after a normal inspiration

500 ml

How much is tidal volume at rest

3000 ml

How much is inspiratory reserve volume at rest

Expiratory reserve volume

The amount of air that can be forcefully expired after a normal expiration

1100ml

How much is expiratory reserve volume at rest

Residual volume

The volume of air still remaining in the respiratory passages and lungs after the most forceful expiration

1200 ml

How much is residual volume ?

Increases

Tidal volume _______ when a perosn is more active

1) inspiratory capacity
2) functional residual capacity
3) vital capacity
4) total lung capacity

4 types of pulmonary capacities

Inspiratory capacity

Is the tidal volume plus the inspiratory reserve volume . It is the amount of air a person can inspire maximally after a normal expiration

Functional residual capacity

Is the expiratory reserve volume plus the residual volume. It is the amount of air remaining in the lungs at the end of a normal expiration

Vital capacity

Is the sum of the inspiratory reserve volume, the tidal volume, and the expiratory reserve volume. It is the maximum volume of air a person can expel from the respiratory tract after a maximum inspiration

Total lung capacity

Is the sum of the inspiratory and expiratory reserve volumes plus the tidal volume and the residual volume

Forced vital capacity

A functional measure of lung performance. A simple and clinically important pulmonary test

Forced expiratory volume in 1 second

Is the amount of air expired within the first second of hte test. A lower ______ measure indicates that the severity of the disease has worsened

Respiratory rate

The number of breaths per minute

Minute volume

A measure of the amount of air moved through the respiratory system per minute

Minute volume

Can be calculated by multiplying the tidal volume by the respiratory rate

Alveolar ventilation

The measure of the volume of air available for gas exchange per minute.

Dead space

The remaining areas where no gas exchange occurs

1) anatomical dead space
2) physiological dead space

2 types of dead space within the respiratory system

Anatomical dead space

Areas include all the structures of the upper respiratory tract and structures of the lower respiratory tract to the terminal bronchioles

Physiological dead space

The combination of the anatomical dead space and the volume of any alveoli with lower than normal gas exchange.

Compliance

______ is a measure of the ease with which the lungs and the thorax expand. The _______ of the lungs and thorax is the volume by which they increase fro each unit of change in intra-alveolar pressure.

1) deposition of inelastic fibers
2) collapse of alveoli
3) increased resistance to airflow by airway obstruction
4) deformities of the thoracic wall that reduce its ability to expand and allow the thoracic volume to increase

4 conditions that could decrease compliance

Pulmonary fibrosis

Example of deposition of inelastic fibers in lung tissue

Infant respiratory distress syndrome and pulmonary edema

2 examples of the collapse of the alveoli

1) asthma
2) bronchitis
3) lung cancer

3 examples of airway o structures that could lead to decrease in compliance

1) kyphosis
2) scoliosis

2 examples of deformations in the thoracic wall that lead to decrease in compliance

Dalton’s law

Law that states the total pressure of a gas is the sum of hte individual pressures of each gas

Partial pressure

The individual pressure of each gas i called the ______ __________

1) air entering the respiratory system is humidified
2) o2 diffuses from the alveoli int o the blood while co2 diffuses from the blood into the alveoli
3). The alveolar air is only partially replaced with atmospheric air during each inspiration

3 factors that cause differences in the composition among alveolar air, expired air, and atmospheric air

Henry’s law

The law that describes the concentration of a gas at equilibrium in a liquid. Pressure of gas x solubility coefficient = concentration of dissolved gas

Solubility coefficient

How readily a gas dissolves ina liquid

1) solubility coefficient
2) molecular weight of gas

2 factors that determine the diffusion coefficient

Diffusion coefficient

Determines the rate at which a gas diffuses into and out of a liquid or tissue

Intra-alveolar pressure

Air pressure in the alveoli called __________

Decreases; increased

When a person inspires, the intro-alveolar pressure ______ because the alveolar volume has __________

1) lung recoil
2) pleural pressure

2 other factors that influence the ability of alveoli to increase and decrease in volume

Lung recoil

The tendency for the lungs to decrease in size after they are stretched

1) elastic recoil
2) surface tension

2 reasons lung recoil occurs

Aqueous alveolar fluid

Alveoli are lined with an ______ _____ ______ which adheres to the wall fo the alveoli

Surfactant

Collapse of the alveoli due to surface tension is prevented by the molecule _________

Infant respiratory distress syndrome

Common in premature infants. Occurs because surfacant is not produced in adequate quantities until 28 weeks. Collapse of lungs

Pleural pressure

The pressure within the pleural cavity between the parietal pleura and the visceral pleura

Visceral pleura

Pleura that covers the lungs

Collapse

If the visceral and parietal pleurae becoem separated, the lungs _______

pneumothorax

increase in pleural pressure that is caused by separation of the visceral and parietal pleurae

1) penetrating trauma
2) nonpenetrating trauma

2 major posisble causes of pneumothroax

vasoconsriction; vasodilation

when an area of the lungs experiences reduced airflow, there is _____ in vessels leading to the affected area and _______ occurs to areas of the lungs continuing to receive adequate airflow

tension pneumothorax

the pressure within the pleural cavity is always higher than atmospheric pressure.

1) normal quiet inspiration, pleural pressure decreases
2) the alveolar volume increases, and intra-alveolar pressure decreases below atmospheric pressure and air flows into lungs
3) as air flows into the lungs, intra-alveolar pressue increaess and becomes equal to atomospheric pressure and becomes equal to atomospheric pressure at the end of inspiration.
4) during expiration, pleural pressure increases because of decreased thoracic volume and decreased lung recoil
5) as pleural pressure increases, alveolar volume decreases, intra-alveolar pressure increases above atmospheric pressure and air flows out of the lungs
6) as aur flows out of the lungs, intra-alveolar pressure decreases and becomes equal to atmospheric pressure at the end of expiration

6 steps of pressure changes in normal breathing cycle

1) partial pressure gradients
2) thickness of respiratory membrane
3) surface area

3 factors affecting diffusion through the respiratory membrane

1) embryonic
2) fetal
3) adult
4) altered hemoglobin

4 types of hemoglobin

1) dissolved in plasma
2) bound to hemoglobin
3) converted to bicarbonate ion

3 ways co2 is transported in the blood

oygen

carbon dioxides ability to bind to hemoglobin is affected by the amount of oxygen bound to hemoglobin

haldene effect

the relationship between oxygen, carbon dioxide, and hemoglobin affinity

carbonic anhydrase

an enzyme that catalyzes a reversible reaction the production of carbonic acid

increase

as co2 levels _______, more H+ is produced

chloride shift

the process in which HCO3- is removed from the red blood cells by an antiporter. it maintains electrical neutrality in the red blood cells and plasma

greater

removing HCO3- from inside the RBC also promotes _____ CO2 transport

decrease

as HCO3- concetrantions ________ wihtin the RBC, more co2 reacts with water to form additional HCO3- and H+

CO2 + H2O --> H2CO3 --> H+ + HCO3-

carbonic anhydrase equation

chemoreceptors

specialied neurons that detect changes in the concentration of specific chemicals

central chemoreceptors

located bilaterally and ventrally in the chemosensitive area of the medualla oblongata

peripheral chemoreceptors

found in the carotid and aortic bodies.

oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curve

describes the percent saturation of hemoglobin in the blood at different blood po2 values

bohr effect

the effect of ph on the oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curve

1) ph increase
2) co2 decrease
3) temperature decrease

what 3 things shift the oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curve to left

1) ph decrease
2) co2 increase
3) temperature increase

what 3 things shift the oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curve to the right

ATP production

when body temperature increases, the rate of _____ _______ is increase thus more co2 enters the blood

2-3biphosphoglycerate (BPG)

as RBC metabolize glucose for energy, they proudce a byproduct called ___ that binds to hemoglobin which reduces the affinity for o2

increase

BPG helps ________ o2 delivery to tissues because higher levels of BPG ________ the realase of o2 in tusses

pulmonary capillary perfusion

the flow of blood to the alveoli through pulmonary capillaries

ventilation-perfusion coupling

the relationship between ventilation of the alveoli and blood flow to the alveoli is:

shunted blood

blood that is not oxygenated

1) anatomical shunt
2) physiological shunt

2 types of shunted blood

anatomical shunt

is due to deoxygenated blood from the bronchi and bronchioles mixing with blood in the pulmonary veins

physiological shunt

the combination of the anatomical shunt and incompletely oxygenated blood from the alveoli

1) insufficient blood flow to alveoli
2) nsufficient air flow to the alveoli

2 situations that cna cause normal ventialtion-perfusion coupling to be disrupted

brainstem

the site of automatic regulation of pulmonary ventilation

medullary respiratory center

in the medulla oblongata neurons that are active during inspiration and intermingled with those that are active durign expiration

1) ventral respiratory group
2) dorsal respiratory group

2 set of neurons in the medullary respiratory center

ventral respiratory group

forms a longitudinal column of cells locaed in the ventral part of each half of he medulla oblongata

dorsal respiratory group

forms a longitudinal column of cells in the dorsal part of eahc half of the medulla oblongata

eupnea

the involuntary rhythm of breathing

pre-botzinger complex

part of the vrg that is believed to establish teh basic thythm of the pulmonary vntilation

pontine respiratory group

a collection of neurons in the pons that helps moedulate pulmonary ventilation rate

1) inspiratory phase
2) postinspiratory phase
3) expiratory phase

3 distinct phases of eupnea

hypoxia

a decrease in oxygen below its normal values

hypercapnia

a greater than normal amount of co2 in the blood

hypocapnia

a lower htan normal co2 level. results in periods where pulmonary ventilation is reduced or does not occur at all

hering-breuer reflex

limits the depth of inspiration and prevents overinflation of the lungs